Pedagogical Anthropology - English Restoration ## Chapter 07 - Technical Part In a book the technical part can serve only to point the way, because the acquirement of technique demands *practical experience*. The technique of anthropology consists, essentially, of two principal branches: 1. the gathering of anthropological data by means of measurements (anthropometry) and by inspection (anthroposcopy); 2. the formulation of laws based on these anthropological data. Anthropometry requires a knowledge: a. of anthropometric instruments; b. of the anatomical points of contact to which the instruments must be applied. For beginners it will be found helpful to mark upon the subject the anthropometric points of contact by means of a dermographic pencil. In anthropology so large a number of measurements are taken, both from life and from skeletons, that a minute description of them all would demand a separate treatise. We shall limit ourselves to indicating such measurements as it has been found of *practical* *utility* to take in school. ### The Form In the theoretic part of this work we emphasized the word *form*, representing the body as a whole and embodying the conception of relationship between the proportions of the body, tending to determine the morphological individuality. From the normal point of view the two individualities which are most interesting and worthy of comparison are those of the *new-born child* and the *adult* (see Fig. 140 and its eloquent testimony). In these two individualities the greatest possible prominence is given to those differences of proportion between bust and limb on which all the various measurements of the form depend: the *standing and sitting stature*; *the total spread of the arms*; the *weight*; the *circumference of the thorax* (see "Theoretic Lessons on the Form"). With the theory recalled to mind we may now pass on to the *practical procedure for obtaining these various* *measures*. Among them the most important is the *stature*, whose cycle is represented in Fig. 141. The theoretic section of this book devotes special attention to the stature in a separate chapter following that on the Form. It is well to have in mind the general principals before taking up the technique of the separate measurements. *Stature.*—The stature is the distance intervening between the plane on which the individual stands in an erect position and the top of his head.  Fig. 140.—*New-born child* and *adult man* reduced to the same height and preserving their relative bodily proportions. The head of the new-born child is twice the height of that of the adult and extends downward to the level of the latters's nipples. The pubes of the adult correspond to the navel of the new-born child; and the pubes of the child to the middle of the adult's thigh. *Technical Procedure.*—It is necessary to know how to place the subject in an erect position, heels together and toes turned out, shoulders square, arms pendent, head orientated, *i.e.*, occipital point touching the wall, gaze horizontal. In measuring the individual stature it is customary to use an instrument called an anthropometer (Fig. 142). It consists of a horizontal board on which the subject stands, a stationary vertical rod marked with the metric scale against which the subject rests his back, and another small movable rod perpendicular to the first and projecting forward from it; this is lowered until it is tangent to the apex of the cranium; and the scale upon the upright rod gives the number corresponding to the stature.  Fig. 141.—Diagram representing the cycle of stature of man (unbroken line) and woman (dotted line), from birth to the end of life. Certain anthropologists are now trying to perfect the anthropometer (Mosso's school). And, indeed, how is it possible to bring the entire person posteriorly in contact with the vertical rod of the anthropometer? The rod is straight while the body follows the curves of the vertebral column and the gluteus muscles. Accordingly, Professor Monti, an assistant to Professor Mosso, has proposed a new anthropometer which, in place of the single rod at the back, has a pair of rods, so that the more prominent portions of the body may occupy the intermediate space; a similar anthropometer was already in use for measuring kyphotics.  Fig. 142.—Anthropometer.  Fig. 143.—A square. At the present day there are exceedingly complicated and accurate anthropometers which comprise, in addition, instruments for obtaining various other measurements, such as the thoracic and cephalic perimeters, etc. But these are very costly and not practical for use in schools. Their use is confined chiefly to medical clinics, as, for example, Viola's anthropometer, which is used in Professor De Giovanni's clinic. Broca recommends to travelers an anthropometer consisting of a graduated rod with a movable index attached. By means of this a series of distances from the ground can be measured, and consequently various partial heights of the body, from the ground to the top of the head, from the ground to the chin, to the pubis, to the knee, etc., but grave errors may be committed and its use is not advisable so long as we have within reach a universal anthropometer. The universal anthropometer consists essentially of two planes perpendicular to each other; now we may say that in every room, in the meeting of two planes, the floor and the wall, we have an anthropometer. There is no reason why we should not make use of this simple means! Placing the child in an erect position with the body touching the wall throughout its whole length, we place a perfectly horizontal rod tangent to the top of the head, we make a mark upon the wall, and then with a millimetric measure we take the distance between the mark and the floor, and this gives us the stature. Two difficulties are met with, first, that of holding the rod horizontally on the top of the head, and secondly, that of measuring the distance in a perfectly vertical line. In the first difficulty a carpenter's square may help us or, if there is a school of manual training within convenient reach it is easy to have a little instrument constructed (Fig. 143) consisting of two planes perpendicular to each other, one of which should be held tangent to the head while the other is pressed against the wall (carpenter's square). As regards the vertical measurement, a plumb line may be used, but it is more practical to trace upon the wall that we mean to use for such measurements, a design consisting of a vertical line on which a mark may be made at the height of one metre from the floor in order to simplify the task of measuring. It is better if the millimetric tape is made of metal, so that it will not vary in length; but even a tailor's measure of waxed tape may answer the purpose if it is new and has been tested with a metallic measure or an accurate metre rule. The height of the stature is taken *without the shoes*, and it is necessary to state at what hour of the day the measurement is made, because in the morning we are taller (though by only a few millimetres) than we are in the evening. The stature may also be taken in a recumbent position (length of body), and in this case will be longer by about one centimetre. Consequently in giving the measure of stature it is necessary to state in what position the subject was placed, by what method the measurement was taken (whether with an anthropometer or not) and at what hour of the day the measurement was made. It is not necessary to say that the subject was required to remove his shoes, since that is taken for granted. *Sitting Stature.*—Besides the stature taken on foot, the sitting stature (height of bust) is also taken by an analogous process. It is the distance between the plane on which the individual is seated and the vertex of his head. The subject should be seated upon a wooden bench having a horizontal plane and should place his back in contact with the wall; just as in the case of the preceding measure the shoes had to be removed, in the present case the clothing is discarded, leaving only the light underwear (Fig. 144). With the aid of the square we find the point corresponding to the vertex of the head and with the millimetric measure we obtain the distance on the wall between this point and the plane of the bench.  Fig. 144—(1) Sitting stature. (2) Standing stature. **(Method of taking measurements with the Anthropometer.)** *Index of Stature.*—We know that these two measures are extremely important for ascertaining the type of stature, *i.e.*, *macroscelia* and *brachyscelia*, determined by the proportion between the sitting stature and the total stature reduced to a scale of 100, that is, the relation of the bust to the total height of the individual. Let us remember in this connection that the bust should be a 52d or 53d part of the total stature and that below 52 down to 50, it is macroscelous, and that above 53, up to 55, it is brachyscelous. Having obtained the two numbers corresponding to the two statures, *e.g.*, stature 1.60 m., bust 0.85 m., how are we to find out the percentual relation between the two measurements? First, we form an equation: 85:160 = *x*:100. from which we obtain *x* = (100×85)/160 = 53 This stature is of the normal average type, that is, it is mesatiscelous; but the mesatiscelia is high (in comparison with the other measurement that is also mesatiscelous, namely, 52), in other words, it is *brachy-mesatiscelous*. Note the formula which gives us the value of *x*. If we substitute general symbols in place of the concrete values, we may say that *x* is equal to one hundred times the lesser measurement (*m*) divided by the greater measurement (*M*). If, in place of *x*, we substitute *I*, signifying index, we may draw up the following general formula of indices: *I* = (100×*m*)/*M* This formula of relations between measurements is of wide application in anthropology and is fundamental. Indices of every measurement are sought for. The one given above is the index of stature, and it determines the *type* of stature. All the other indices are calculated by similar procedure.  Fig. 145.—Method of measuring the total spread of arms. *Total Spread of the Arms.*—This measurement is taken quite simply. The subject must place himself with his arms outstretched in a horizontal direction and on a level with his shoulders. The measurement corresponds to the distance intervening in a horizontal line from the tip of one middle finger to the other (Fig. 145). A specially constructed anthropometer may be used for this measurement. It has a long horizontal rod adjustable perpendicularly, so that it may be placed on a level with the shoulders of the subject to be measured. This rod forms a cross with the other vertical rod with which the subject should be in contact. The arms are then extended along the cross rod which is marked with a millimetric scale. But this greatly complicates the anthropometer, and hardly any anthropometer possesses this attachment. This measure may be successfully taken with the very simple aid of the wall. The only difficulty offered is that of securing a perfectly horizontal position for the arms. For this purpose horizontal lines, which either happen by chance to be upon the wall or which may be drawn on purpose, will be of assistance. In order to have guiding lines suited to different statures, several horizontal lines may be drawn intersecting the vertical line already traced for guidance of the millimetric tape measure used in taking the stature. *Thoracic Perimeter.*—The thoracic perimeter is taken on the nude thorax, in an erect position and with the arms hanging beside the bust, by applying the millimetric measure in such a way that its upper margin passes just below the nipples. The tape measure should completely encircle the thorax in a horizontal plane passing through the mammary papillæ. Since the thorax is in constant motion, we must observe the oscillations of the tape measure and obtain the average; or else we may take the measurements during the state of expiration (repose). In giving the figure it is necessary to specify the procedure followed. *Vital Index. Index of Life.*—Index of life is the name given to the proportion between the stature and the thoracic perimeter. It ought to be equal to 50, *i.e.*, *Tp* = *S*/2 *Vi* = (100×*Tp*)/*S* = 50 (normal). *Weight.*—The weight of an individual is taken by means of ordinary *scales*. In order to obtain the weight of the nude person, the clothing may be weighed separately and their weight subtracted from the total weight of the clothed person. The weight should be taken before eating, in order that unassimilated alimentary substances may not alter the real weight of the subject. If this method cannot be rigorously followed out, it should be specified how much clothing the subject retained, whether he had eaten, etc. *Ponderal Index.*—Stature and weight are the most synthetic and comprehensive measurements of the form. But we need a clear proportion between these two measures to tell us whether an individual weighs more or less *relatively* to his *stature*. It may happen, for instance, that a stout person of short stature actually weighs less than another person who is tall and thin; but relatively to his stature he may on the contrary be heavier, that is, he may have a higher *ponderal index*. A robust and plump child will weigh in an absolute sense less than an adult who is extremely thin and emaciated; but relatively to the mass of his body he weighs more. Now this relative weight or index of weight (ponderal index) gives us precisely this idea of *embonpoint*, of the more or less flourishing state of nutrition in which an individual happens to be. But linear measurements such as the stature cannot be compared with volumetric measurements, such as the weight. Hence it is necessary to reduce the volumetric measure—the weight—to a linear measure, which is done by extracting the cube root from the number representing the weight. Then the root of the weight may be compared to the stature reduced to a scale of 100. By forming a general proportion, in which *W* represents the weight of a given individual, and *S* the corresponding figure of his stature, we obtain: *S*:∛(*W*)::100:*x* (where *x* represents the ponderal index) hence *Pi* = (100×∛(*W*))/*S* The application of this formula would necessitate some rather complicated calculations, which it would be inconvenient to have to repeat for a large number of subjects. But there are tables of calculations already compiled, which are due to Livi, and which are given, together with other tables, in Livi's own work, *Anthropometry* (Hoepli). These are numerical tables, to be read in the same manner as tables of logarithms. At the top, in a horizontal direction, the stature is given in centimetres, while in the vertical column the weight is given in kilograms. The calculation of all the ponderal indices has been worked out, in relation to every possible stature and weight. If we look up the ponderal index corresponding to the figures already cited in illustration (see p. ([182](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/46643/46643-h/46643-h.htm#Page_182))), we find that for the adult the *Pi* = 23.6, and for the child the *Pi* = 27.4; *i.e.*, considered relatively the child weighs more in the given case. This is the true and accurate technical method of finding the relative proportion between weight and stature. Accordingly, we have now learned to take all the measurements relative to the form, to calculate from them the more important indices (or proportions), such as the index of stature, the index of life, and the ponderal index. We have also learned to understand and to consult the tables of anthropological calculations. ### The Cranium *The Head and Cranium.*—Let us bear in mind the fact that the word *head* is used in speaking of a living person, and *cranium*, of a skeleton. The science which makes a study of the cranium is called craniology. The cranium and the head may be studied either by observing the external form—*cranioscopy* or *cephaloscopy*; or else by taking measurements—*craniometry* or *cephalometry*. Craniology makes use equally of cranioscopy and of craniometry: in fact, if cranioscopy alone were used, certain anomalies might escape attention, because we can recognise them only by measuring the head; and conversely, if we confined ourselves to craniometric researches, we might miss certain anomalies of form, which we become aware of only by attentively observing the cranium. Frequently craniometry serves to verify cranioscopy. For example, a cranium may appear to the eye too large or too small, but certainly if we measure the cranial circumference with a tape-measure we shall have an accurate decision of a case which may well be a simple optical illusion. Indeed, we all know how easy it is to give an erroneous judgment, relying only on our senses; for the personal equation enters very largely into judgments of this sort. For instance, a person of low stature easily judges that other men are tall, and *vice versa*. To the eye of the Italian or the Frenchman, the hair of young English girls is a pale blond; to the Scandinavians of the North it is a warm blond. If two men possessed of different æsthetic tastes and in different frames of mind wish to describe one and the same garden they will give two widely different descriptions which will reveal far more of their individual impressions and moods than of the actual characteristics of the garden described. It is easy to understand how important it is in scientific descriptions to exclude completely the influence of the observer's personality. In the cranioscopic study of a cranium, for instance, the precise characteristics of that cranium are what must be found and nothing else whatever, no matter who the student is nor in what part of the world he is working. But in order to achieve this result it is not enough to take observations; it is also necessary to know how to observe, and in observing to follow a scientific method. *Cranioscopy.*—Cranioscopic methods require that the skull shall be observed from several sides. Blumenbach, who studied crania by observing them from the vertex, divided them into ovoid, rhomboid, etc., while Camper, on the other hand, studying them in profile, classified them as flat, elongated, etc., and the conclusions of the two scientists were irreconcilable.  Fig. 146.—Facial norm.  Fig. 147.—Occipital norm.  Fig. 148.—Lateral norm. The cranium must be observed from above, from the front, in profile and from the occipital part; and in such a manner that the observer's glance shall fall perpendicularly upon whichever cranial side is under observation. Hence it is said that the observation is made according to the norm, *i.e.*, according to the perpendicular, and there are four *norms* in cranioscopy—*vertical*, *frontal*, *lateral*, and *occipital*. In this way we may be sure that no anomaly of form will escape the eye. There are innumerable anomalies of form. We will indicate only the principal ones. In order to detect all the anomalies that may occur in a cranium it is necessary to observe it according to all the norms, each one of which may reveal a different set of anomalies. A. *Vertical Norm.*—The word *norm*, as we have already said, has here the signification of perpendicular. To look at a cranium according to the vertical norm means to let our glance fall perpendicularly upon the vertex of the cranium. We may do this in one of two ways, either by raising our head above that of the subject of inspection, in such a way that our glance falls vertically upon it, or by bending back the head of the person to be observed until the crown of his head becomes perpendicular to our gaze. This norm is taken by placing oneself behind the person to be observed, who, if an adult, should be seated while the observer remains standing; and by taking the head to be examined between the two hands in such a way that the extended thumbs and index-fingers form a horizontal circlet around the cranial walls. This is the most important of the norms, not only because it reveals the most important normal forms already described in the text, but also the greater number of anomalies such as are indicated below. 1\. *Crania with Rectilinear Perimeter.*—It may happen that the line bounding the cranial vault is not curved but formed of broken straight lines from which various geometrical figures result, producing crania known as trigonocephalic, pentagonoid, parallelopipedoid, etc. The most important among these and among all the abnormal forms is the trigonocephalic cranium, having the base of the triangle toward the occiput and the vertex toward the forehead. The result of such formation is that the frontal region is restricted, a circumstance of obvious gravity. The infantile cranium is normally pentagonoid; the persistence of this form in the adult is a sign of arrested development, but not serious. Sergi does not admit this form among the anomalies when the nodules are but slightly emphasised. 2\. *Asymmetrical and Plagiocephalic Crania.*—The sagittal plane divides the cranium into two unequal halves. The asymmetry may be either frontal, in which case one frontal nodule is more prominent than the other—anterior plagiocephaly, or else parietal, in which case one of the parietal nodules is more prominent than the other—posterior plagiocephaly. These are the two forms of simple plagiocephaly. It may happen that there is simultaneously an anterior and posterior asymmetry, and in such a case it generally happens that if the more prominent frontal nodule is on the right, the more prominent parietal nodule is on the left, so that the two more prominent nodules correspond in a diagonal sense. This is compound plagiocephaly. Plagiocephaly is extremely common; if very apparent, it constitutes a grave defect, but not if only slight. For that matter, it would be difficult to find a cranium rigorously symmetrical, even among normal persons. 3\. *Crania with curved and symmetrical lines*, but in which the perimeter consists not of a single ellipsoidal curve, but of two curves. a. *Clinocephalic Cranium.*—The coronal suture has a girdle-like furrow, in such fashion that there result an anterior and a posterior curve which together form a sort of figure 8. This anomaly may be perceived also from the lateral norm. b. *Cymbocephalic Cranium.*—- There is a girdle-like furrow along the sagittal line, so that the cranium has the appearance of being divided into two pockets, one on the right hand and the other on the left. B. *Lateral Norm.*—The observer must stand at the side of the subject to be observed and look at him perpendicularly to the profile. We remain standing while we look if the subject is an adult and is standing up, but we sit down if the subject is a child and is standing; and we determine the vertical position by moving the subject's head as the occasion requires. I note, as seen from this norm, two anomalies in which the ellipsoidal uniformity outlining the profile of the cranium is altered. a. *Oxycephalic Cranium.*—The line of the profile is noticeably raised at the bregma, from which the anterior part of the cranium continues to rise, almost in the direction of the forehead, instead of curving backward. In its entirety this anomalous cranium has the form of a "sugar loaf." b. *Acrocephalic Cranium.*—The line of the profile, on the contrary, is not raised until near the lambda. C. *Occipital Norm.*—The observer places himself behind the subject and gazes perpendicularly at the occipital point. D. *Frontal Norm.*—The observer stands in front of the subject and gazes at him on a level with the forehead. I may point out only one very important anomaly seen from this norm. a. *Scaphocephalic Cranium.*—The lateral parts of the cranium are flattened to such a degree that the vault is extremely narrow along the sagittal line (see Figs. 51 and 52). *Craniometry.*—The *volume* of the cranium is of high importance because it bears a relation to that of the brain. In the studies which have been made relative to the correspondence between physical and intellectual development, the measurement of the cranial volume comes first in order. In measuring the cranium it is necessary to use: a. *the millimetric tape measure*, b. *the craniometric calipers*, c. *the compass with sliding branches*, d. *the double square*. In order to facilitate the task of measuring and to secure uniformity it is necessary first to locate the craniometric points to which it will be necessary to apply the instrument. These craniometric points are easily located on the cranium, where a great number of them have been studied. In the case of a living person, on the contrary, these points are reduced to a small number because of the difficulty of accurately locating them. The points on the vault of the cranium, along the sagittal line, are: 1. The *nasion* (point of union of the nasal and frontal bones). 2. The *ophryon* (middle point of the line tangent to the two superciliary arches, a line corresponding to the horizontal drawn transversely across the forehead and passing through the two points on the temporal lines which are nearest to the median line. This point lies in an important region of the forehead, situated between the two eyebrows—the glabella. The central point of the middle region of the forehead above the glabella is called the *metopion*). 3. The *bregma* (point of juncture between the coronal and sagittal suture). 4. The *vertex*. 5. The *lambda* (point of juncture between the sagittal suture and the occipital or lambdoid suture). 6. The *occipital point*. 7. The *inion* (situated at a level midway between the occipital point and the occipital foramen). Laterally we have these other craniometric points: 1. The *external orbital apophysis* (formed from the frontal bone). 2. The *supra-auricular* point. 3. The *auricular point* (corresponding to a little depression which may be felt just below the tragus and in correspondence with the zygomatic arches). 4. The minimum *frontal point* (a bony angle which may be felt about 1 centimetre above the external orbital apophysis, along the temporal line). On a living person the following points can easily be located: Along the sagittal line: 1. The *nasion*. 2. The *ophryon*. 3. The *vertex*. 4. The *occipital point*. Laterally: 1. The *external orbital apophysis*. 2. The *supra-auricular point*. 3. The *auricular point*. 4. The *minimum frontal point*. Now, with these points as guides it becomes practical to measure the various curves and diameters of the cranium. The curves are measured by means of the millimetric tape; the diameters by means of the calipers. There are various curves; we shall confine ourselves to considering only the following: The *maximum circumference*, which is obtained by passing the tape across the ophryon, the occipital points and the supra-auricular points, beginning to apply it at the ophryon. Its measure varies from 520 to 540 mm. in man and from 490 to 510 mm. in woman, if taken from the skull. In the case of a living person 20 mm. should be added. If we find a circumference greater than normal, we are beginning to enter upon the anomaly which goes by the name of *macrocephaly*. If, on the other hand, the maximum circumference is notably smaller, we are entering upon the anomaly of *microcephaly*. *Measurement of Diameters.—Maximum Antero-posterior Diameter.*—With the left hand place one branch of the calipers upon the glabella; the other extreme point is to be sought tentatively along a vertical line dividing the occiput in two halves. Partially close the calipers by means of the screw and then make trial by raising and lowering the posterior branch. It ought to move with a slight friction. This is the classic diameter which measures the maximum length of the cranium and which, as we have seen, it is customary to compare with the width in order to obtain the cephalic index. In the adult man it normally oscillates between 170 and 180 mm.  Fig. 149.—Inspecting cranium (lateral and vertical norms). *Maximum Transverse Diameter.*—This measures the width of the cranium. The investigator places himself in front of the subject in order to keep the compass quite horizontal through the guidance of the eyes. The maximum distance is found by experimenting. It normally corresponds very nearly to the supra-auricular points. In children this diameter is frequently situated higher up toward the parietal nodules; in men of tall stature, in whom the cranial vault is generally slightly developed, this diameter may be found, on the contrary, lower down, near the mastoid apophyses. If this diameter occurs similarly low down in children, a notable growth in stature may be prophesied (Manouvrier); and if inquiry is made it will be found that the parents are very tall. This diameter measures, in the adult, from 140 to 150 mm. *Vertical Diameter.*—This measures the height of the cranium from the occipital foramen to the bregma. This diameter cannot be measured directly excepting on a skull; in the case of a living person its projection is taken, which, though far from accurate, is given by the distance between the vertex and the external auditory meatus. It is necessary to use the double square. The horizontal branch is placed tangent to the vertex, its direction should be perceptibly parallel to the transverse orbital line, the graduated vertical branch should pass over the auricular foramen. The required number may be read, corresponding to the point of the tragus. The height of the cranium is exceedingly important; its variations produce variations in the physiognomy. In the first period of childhood, the cranium is very low in comparison to its width; this is also true of dwarfs. In these cases the width of the cranial vault is large in comparison to that of the base; a low cranium bulging above is distinctive of babies and dwarfs. In the adult this diameter measures from 130 to 140 mm. Among the other measurements which an taken on the cranium, the following may be cited: The *antero-posterior metopic diameter*: from the metopic to the occipital point. In children it is sometimes the maximum longitudinal diameter. The *ophryo-iniac diameter* from the ophryon to the inion. The *minimum frontal diameter*: between the two minimum frontal points. The *maximum frontal diameter*: between the two external orbital apophyses. The *bistephanic diameter*: between the two stephanic points. The *bitemporal diameter*: this is the greatest width of the cranium between the verticals passing through the base of the tragus. The *biauricular diameter*: the craniometrical points are in front of, and a little below, but very near to the upper insertion of the auricle. They are little depressions that can be felt, as we have already said, by applying the finger along the upper edge of the root of the zygomatic arch. *Height of forehead*: from the ophryon to the roots of the hair. Circumferences and Curves: *Anterior Semicircle.*—The tape is applied from one supra-auricular point to the other, passing through the ophryon; it corresponds to the anterior part of the maximum circumference. Manouvrier measures it in correspondence to the verticals erected from the tragus. *Posterior Semicircle.*—This is obtained by subtracting the anterior semicircle from the whole circumference. *Vertical Curve of the Head.*—The tape passes through a plane that is vertical to the orientated head, starting from the supra-auricular points or from the tragus, according to different authorities. *Cephalic Index.*—This is the proportion between the *maximum* *transverse* and *longitudinal* diameters. It is obtained by applying the familiar formula: *Ci* = (100×*d*)/(*D*) in which *d* represents the transverse diameter and *D* the longitudinal. The index represents the percentual relation between the two diameters, and is obtained from the formula by reducing the greater diameter to a scale of 100, as follows: *D*:100 = *d*:*X*, *whence* *X* = 100×*d*/*D* Instead of working out the calculations, we may find the required index in the tables already compiled. *Volume.*—The volume of the cranium cannot be taken directly, except in the case of a skull. After the various osseous foramina have been closed, the cranial cavity is filled through the occipital foramen with any one of a number of substances (millet, shot, water, etc.), which is afterward measured. The method of taking this measurement is practised on a facsimile of a cranium already calculated, and usually made of metal. But in the case of a living person the direct calculation of the volume is impossible. Nevertheless various empirical methods have been sought for obtaining this measurement, even though imperfect and approximate. Recently renewed use has been made, especially in France, of an approximate calculation made by means of Broca's cubic index. The volume of the cranium is equal to half the product of the three diameters, divided by an index which varies according to age. This index is as follows: | Adults from 25 years upward. | men | 1.20 | | ---------------------------- | --- | ---- | | women | 1.15 | | Young persons from 25 to 20 years. | men | 1.15 | | women | 1.10 | | Young persons from 20 to 16 years. | men | 1.10 | | women | 1.08 | | Children of both sexes. | 15-10 years | 1.07 | | 10-5 years | 1.06 | | 5 years and below | 1.05 | An index of cranial development is afforded by the maximum circumference. The average volume of the normal adult cranium is about 1,500 cubic centimetres: *mesocephalic cranium*. When the cranium is much inferior in volume, it is called *microcephalic* (from 1,200 down to 700 cubic centimetres). When on the contrary it is much superior (from 1,900 up to 2,200 cubic centimetres), it is called *macrocephalic* or *megalocephalic*. For the face, the following craniometric points should be noted: Along a longitudinal line: 1. The *nasion* (point of meeting of the nasal and frontal bones). 2. Subnasal point (meeting of nasal septum with upper maxilla). 3. *Upper alveolar point* (between the two upper incisors at their point of insertion). 4. *Lower alveolar point* (point corresponding to the above, in the lower maxilla). 5. *Mental point* (middle point of the chin). 6. The following craniometric points are situated laterally. 7. *Auricular point* (corresponding to the auricular foramen; in living persons it is situated on the tragus). 8. *Malar point* (on the malar bones). 9. *Zygomatic point* (corresponding to the zygomatic arches). 10. Gonion or goniac point (angle of mandible). The face also may be studied by inspection—*prosoposcopy*; and by measurement—*prosopometry*. *Prosoposcopy.*—We proceed to inspection according to two norms: A. facial norm; B. lateral norm or norm of profile. A. *Facial Norm.*—If it is a question of a living person, we make complete inspection of the visage, from the roots of the hair to the chin. First of all we direct attention to the forehead, which will give us an index of the development of the anterior region of the brain; next, we observe whether a plane passing longitudinally through the median line would divide the face into two equal halves (facial symmetry). From an æsthetic point of view, the three following vertical distances ought to correspond in length: *Height of forehead* (from the roots of the hair to the nasion). *Length of nose* (from the nasion to the subnasal point). *Labio-mental height* (from the subnasal point to the point of the chin). And in regard to width the three following horizontal distances ought, according to the æsthetic laws of art, *very nearly* to correspond (especially in the female face): *Width of forehead*, between the two external orbital points. *Bimalar width*, between the two malar points. *Bigoniac width*, between the two gonia. It should be remembered that the standards of *beauty* do not necessarily coincide with those of *normality*. B. *Lateral Norm.*—In observing the face according to this norm, three facts should be chiefly noted: 1. The relative volumetric development between facial and cerebral cranium. 2. The direction of the forehead, which, in the normal profile, ought to be vertical. 3. Whether the facial profile protrudes or not beyond the extreme anterior limit of the forehead. *Prosopometry.*—-Many forms of measurements are taken on the skeleton of the face and many total and partial indices are obtained, such, for instance, as the facial index, the orbital index, the nasal index, etc. Measurements of diameters and angles are also taken on the face of the living subject and indices are obtained. We, however, shall limit ourselves to indicating only those measurements which are taken most frequently in our special field of application. The diameters and the height of the face are obtained by the *craniometric calipers* and *Mathieu's compass with sliding branches*; the facial angle is measured in projection by means of the *double* *square*; and directly, by the *goniometer*. One mode of measuring the facial angle in projection is that of drawing the facial profile with the help of special instruments; or else of taking a photograph in perfect profile and tracing and measuring the facial angle on the picture. *Principal Linear Measurements:* **Total length of visage:** from line of hair root to point of chin. **Total length of face:** from the nasion to the point of the chin. *Length of the nose:* from the nasion to the subnasal point. *Height of mandible:* from the upper edge of the lower incisors to the lower edge of mandible. *Subnase-mental height:* from the subnasal point to the point of the chin. **Bizygomatic diameter:** between the two bizygomatic arches. *Bimalar diameter:* between the two malar points. **Bigoniac diameter:** between the two gonia. *Biorbital diameter:* between the two external borders of the orbits. *Gonio-mental distance:* from the goniac point to the point of the chin. *Auriculo-frontal radius:* from the tragus or from the auricular point to the ophryon. *Auriculo-subnasal radius.* *Auriculo-mental radius.* (The last four measurements, if compared right and left, give an index of facial *symmetry*; the radii when compared together serve as an indirect measure of prognathism.) *Width of nose* between the external borders of the nostrils (the branches of Mathieu's compass are placed tangent to the nostrils). (The index of the nose is obtained from the length and breadth, by applying the well-known formula of indices; the nose thereupon receives various names—leptorrhine, mesorrhine, platyrrhine). *Width of orbit:* from the inner extremity of the ocular *rima* (eye-slit) to the external border of the orbit. *Width of the ocular rima:* between the two extremities of the *rima*. *Width of the labial rima:* between the two extremities of the *rima*. *Length of the ear:* from the highest upper edge of the auricle to the lower extremity of the lobule. *Index of the ear:* this is obtained, by the well-known formula, from the length and breadth. The normal index is 50; the types of ear above 50 are *low* types. Anthropologists obtain the facial index from the skeleton, especially for the purpose of determining the proportion of the face in human remains found in the geological strata. In such crania the mandible is wanting, and the teeth are wanting. Consequently, there are several ways of computing the facial index, because, while the transverse or bizygomatic diameter, which is considered as the lesser diameter, always remains constant, the longitudinal, which is considered as the greater, varies. The longitudinal diameter is calculated sometimes from the ophryon to the chin, at others from the ophryon to the point of insertion of the two upper middle incisors. In the first case it is now less, and again greater than the bizygomatic diameter; in the second case, it is always less, and the resulting facial index is notably greater than 100. The most usual formula for the facial index is the following: *Fi* = (bizygomatic diameter×100)/(ophryo-mental diameter) on the basis of which Pruner Bey gives the following mean averages according to race, for the general facial index: | Arabs | 96.7 | | ----- | ---- | | Chinese | 101.7 | | Hottentots | 105.7 | | Tasmanians | 109.9 | | Laplanders | 124.7 | This index is not exact and constant, like that for the cranium; in fact, in case a person loses his teeth the index is altered. At the present day, especially in the French school, the anterior or total facial index is taken into consideration, in which the vertical diameter is measured from the vertex of the head to the chin (Collignon), and, consequently, the index is always less than 100. The following is the nomenclature that results for the anterior facial index: | Leptoprosopics | 62 and below | | -------------- | ------------ | | Mesoprosopics | from 62 to 66 | | Chameprosopics | 66 and above | If we take for the measure of *length* that of the *visage*, *i.e.*, the distance between the middle point of the frontal line of roots of the hair and the chin, we obtain indices that are higher by 5 than those of the French school, namely: | Leptoprosopics | 67 and below | | -------------- | ------------ | | Mesoprosopics | from 67 to 71 | | Chameprosopics | 71 and above | In many cases this index differs in the individual by as much as 10 from the cranial index, as I proved in my work on the population of Latium. Consequently, anyone who has a cranial index of 81 ought to have a *visage index* of 71, etc. Contrary to what happens in the case of the cranium, the index of the face varies according to the age, the face being very short in childhood, and much longer in the adult. *Angles.*—The angles distinguished by anthropologists are so numerous that it is impossible for us to take them all under consideration. In the case of a living person, the angles may be measured directly with the aid of Broca's *goniometer*; the transverse branch passes across the subnasal point; the two antero-posterior branches are inserted, with the buttons with which they terminate, into the external auricular canals; the vertical branch, swinging on a hinge, is adjusted in such a way that the little rod which it carries at the end rests upon the ophryon. This complicated instrument resembles an instrument of torture and could not be applied to children; furthermore, it is difficult to adjust, and consequently the angles that it gives are inexact: every muscular contraction causes the angle to vary. For this reason the goniometer is impracticable. If, by means of an instrument we trace the projection of the facial profile, the facial angle may be taken on such a drawing; it may also be traced and calculated on a photograph taken in profile. Broca's angle is that included between the auricular foramen, the subnasal point and the ophryon. Camper's angle is that included between the auricular foramen, the point of insertion of the upper incisors and the metopic point. We, on the contrary, in *judging* of the facial angle, or rather of the existence and degree of prognathism, have resorted to *inspection*, aided by certain facial lines, namely (Fig. 104): *a.* *Vertical Facial Line.*—If the subject holds his head level, with the occipital point in contact with a vertical rod, and his gaze fixed straight before him, then what we call the vertical line is the line perpendicular to the horizontal direction of the gaze, and tangent to the extreme anterior limit of the brain. This line, in the perfect human face, is perpendicular to the horizontal line uniting the auricular point with the subnasal point, and hence forms a right angle with it. *b.* *Line of Facial Profile.*—This is the line uniting the nasal point with the subnasal point. This line is never vertical, and therefore cannot form a right angle with the auriculo-subnasal line, but forms an angle that approximates more or less nearly to a right angle (85°): this is the *facial angle*. Transversely there is only one line for us to consider, and it has already been noted: *c.* The *auriculo-subnasal line*, or *line of orientation*. *Facial Norm.*—Our attention should be directed, as we have already said: 1\. *To the forehead.* This, if anomalous, may be: * Broad (if greater than 133 mm.). * Narrow (if less than 100 mm.). * High (if over 60 mm.). * Low (if under 50 mm.). 2\. *To the Symmetry of the Face.*—If the face is notably asymmetrical, in respect to a plane dividing it longitudinally, the fact is at once perceptible. But a slight asymmetry may fail to be detected either by measurements (trago-mental diameters) or by inspection. Consequently, it will be well to follow certain practical rules in making this observation. Observe first of all the median line of the face: the bridge of the nose, the nasal septum, the upper labial furrow and the point of the chin ought all to lie in the same vertical line; very often a slight deviation of the nasal septum above the upper labial furrow will betray the asymmetry; furthermore, the two naso-labial *plicæ* or folds should be noted, for they ought to be symmetrical in *direction* and in *depth*; lastly, we must observe the symmetry of the zygomatic prominences. We shall often discover three concurrent facts: a slight deviation in the median line of the face usually corresponding to the nasal septum; a greater depth of one of the naso-labial plicæ; and a greater prominence of the zygoma and the cheek on the same side. Our attention should next be turned to the correspondence required by æsthetics between the following three diameters: * Minimum frontal. * Bizygomatic. * Bigoniac. A very notable difference between these distances may also lead to the discovery of anomalies. Sometimes we may discover, even by inspection alone, a notable narrowness of the frontal diameter, as compared with the other two. The *bizygomatic* diameter may show an exaggerated development, and this is frequently accompanied by a hollowness in the temporal and upper maxillary regions and by a beak-like prognathism (prominence of the middle portion of the upper maxilla); at other times this degenerative sign calls our attention to the mongoloid type. The *bigoniac* diameter may also show an exaggerated development due to the enormous volume of the mandible (criminaloid type—Lombroso's assassin type). It is necessary to supplement our observation with the measurement of these three diameters, because it may very often appear to the eye that the minimum frontal diameter is below the normal, merely by comparison with the other two diameters which are overdeveloped; while when measured, it may turn out to be normal. Or, conversely, the other diameters, the bizygomatic or bigoniac, although actually normal, may appear overdeveloped, because of the shortness of the minimum frontal diameter (see "Faces of Inferior Type.") Meanwhile we must not forget that the following are signs of grave degeneration: *a.* The minimum frontal diameter less than 100 mm. (the gravity of this is increased if at the same time the other two diameters are found as described in *b*). *b.* The other two diameters greater than 110 mm. (Lombroso's born delinquents, assassin type). *Lateral Norm, or Norm of Profile.*—Our attention ought to be directed, as we have already said: 1\. To the direction of the forehead. If abnormal, this may be: * *a.* Receding; * *b.* *Bombé*. The receding forehead is an indication of an incomplete or defective development of the frontal lobe of the brain; we find the forehead notably receding in the microcephalic type. The *bombé* forehead is characteristic of hydrocephaly, but may occur also in the scaphoid cranium. When the forehead is bombé, the facial angle becomes equal to or greater than a right angle, because the face recedes beneath the extreme anterior boundary of the brain; in this case we have the opposite case to prothognathism, namely, *orthognathism*. 2\. Our attention should next be directed to the facial profile, in order to observe the form and degree of *prognathism*. The authorities distinguish three principal forms of prognathism: *a.* *Prognathism* properly so-called: prominence of the upper maxilla as a whole. *b.* *Prophatnia.*—Prominence of the alveoli. *c.* *Progeneism.*—Prominence of the mandible—the lower dental arch projects in front of the upper. ### Measurements of the Thorax Principal anthropometric points: *acromial* point; *sternal fossa*; *xiphoid* point; *mammillary* points. **Measurements.**—*Thoracic Circumference.*—Already described among the measurements of the form. Recording instruments are now made that are exceedingly complicated and quite costly, that register the movements of respiration; they are used in medical clinics, but would be of little practical use in our schools. *Axillary and Submammary Circumference.*—Taken as above, but at different levels. *Biacromial Diameter.*—This is taken by means of special calipers called a *thoracimeter* or *pelvimeter*, because it is used to obtain the big measurements of the body (thorax and pelvis). The two buttons at the ends of the branches are applied to the acromial points, while the measurer occupies a position in front of the subject to be measured. *Transverse Thoracic Diameter.*—The buttons of the thoracimeter are applied on a level with the mammary papillæ, along the axillary lines (vertical lines descending from the centre of the arm-pits). *Antero-posterior Thoracic Diameter.*—This is also taken at the level of the nipples: the branches are applied anteriorly on the sternum and posteriorly on the vertebral channel. These two diameters serve to furnish the thoracic index: Ti = (100×*d* (antero-posterior))/(D (transverse)) *Spirometer.*—The subject takes a maximum inspiration and retains his breath until he has exactly fitted his mouth to the apparatus; then he emits all his breath in a forced expiration. This causes the index to rise, and the amount may be read upon it. *Sternal Length.*—From the xiphoid point to the sternal fossa. *Bimammillary Diameter.*—Distance between the two nipples. **Abdomen.**—It would be really difficult to take measurements of the abdomen in the school. The principal anthropometric points to remember are the *umbilical* point, the two *antero-superior* *iliac* points, the *pubis*. The distances which it would be useful to take are the following: *xipho-umbilical* and *umbilico-pubic* distances, which give an idea of the upper development (liver) and lower development (intestines) of the abdomen, and the *biacromial* diameter which measures the width of the pelvis.  Fig. 150. *Limbs.*—In the case of the limbs also it is by no means easy or practicable to take many measurements. Consequently it should be sufficient to indicate that there are a great number of different measurements for every different segment of the limbs. There are two principal instruments needed for this: a large compass with adjustable branches, for the long segments, and a small compass for the short segments. With the large compass we measure the length of the upper arm and forearm, the length of the thigh and shin, the length of the foot. With the small compass we measure the total length of the hand, its width, the length of the fingers and of the digital segments, etc. The circumference of the limbs is taken with the ordinary metallic tape. In order to fulfil the present-day scope of pedagogic anthropology, it is sufficient to take only a few measurements (the form and the head), but it is necessary to take them with great accuracy, and above all, to *verify* one's personal ability as a measurer, so that everyone who wishes to try the experiment may have a reliable method of testing himself. To this end it is necessary to know how to calculate one's own special *personal error*. ### The Personal Error In anthropometry, a knowledge of the anthropometric points, the instruments to apply to them, their use and their interpretation, is not sufficient. There is need of prolonged experience in accordance with the accepted method and under a practical guide. As a matter of fact, the degree of accuracy with which a measurement is taken is always relative, no matter who takes it, but in the case of a person who has had no practice this relativity may present so wide a margin as to be practically useless. To obtain an approximate figure of a measurement means nothing, unless the figure is supplemented not only by a statement as to which of the *accepted methods* was used in taking it, but also by a minute description of the manner in which this method was carried out. It is necessary to bear in mind: 1. That the ability to find the anthropometric points implies a certain knowledge of anatomy; it is a practical research, to be made under the guidance of a teacher, while the actual finding of the points as well as the taking of the measurements, should be left to the learner. 2. That the manner of applying the instruments is not without effect upon the resulting figure: for example, if the compass is held horizontally in measuring the frontal diameter, the result is different from what it would be if the instrument were held vertically. If the compass is held by the extremities of the branches, the diameter is slightly different from what it would be if the compass was held by the handle. Accordingly, it is necessary to describe minutely how we are accustomed to hold the instruments. 3. That the resulting figure differs according to whether or not the screw has been turned, or whether it has been read *in position*, or by approaching the instrument to the eye. 4. That when an instrument is old, it registers different results from those it gave when new; consequently, it is necessary to *verify it*, before proceeding to take a series of measurements. Hence it is proper to state not only precisely what instrument is used, but also that the precaution has been taken to verify it. But what is still more important is to find out one's own *personal* *data*. If the same measurement is taken twice under precisely similar conditions, the same figure is hardly ever obtained both times; everyone, even the most experienced, has his own *personal* *error*. By practice the amount of this error may be steadily lowered, but cannot be eliminated. Constant figures are an evidence of dishonesty, of mere *copying*; they are almost certainly not authentic. It is important to know one's own *average error*. It is calculated as follows: Let us suppose that successive attempts have resulted in the following figures relative to the same measurement: 9, 10, 11, 12, 8 The mean average of these numbers is (9+10+11+12+8)/5 = 10 Let us see how the values obtained differ in respect to 10: 9 10 11 12 8 10 \-1, 0, +1, +2, -2 = differences from the mean average figure. We now take the average of these differences, disregarding the plus and minus signs: (1+0+1+2+2)/5 = 6/5 = 1.2 = mean average error The personal mean error is a datum that it is necessary to know in order to give value to any measurements that we may wish to give forth. In taking the various test measurements for the purpose of calculating one's personal error, it is well to use the precaution of not taking them twice at the same sitting, but after an interval of time, not only so that all marks will have disappeared that may have been left upon the skin by the instrument in the act of measuring, but also that the preceding figure will have faded from our memory. Accordingly, the measurements should be repeated on successive days and if possible under the same conditions of *time* and *place*. It is well to make a careful choice of the time and place, because these also have their effect upon the figures. It will be observed that if the measurements are made in a well-appointed place, with a steady light, without noises, in short, without disturbing causes, the personal error is much more easily decreased, i.e., the measurements are more exact, because the measurer can better concentrate his attention. Even the hour of the day has an influence upon the figures. It is known that none of us has the same ability to perform our various tasks at all the different hours of the day; for instance, it is not a matter of indifference whether we ask the pupils in a school to solve a problem at one hour of the day rather than at another. This is true of all occupations, and hence also of anthropometry; there are certain hours of the day at which fewer errors in measurement will be made, independently of the state of fatigue. Consequently, it is well to know this individual datum, and to tell at what hour and in what environment the measures have been taken. The figures are of more value if they have been compared with the results of other observers; it is necessary, after we have found our own average error, to select, for the purpose of verifying our results, some other observer, of similar experience to our own, and whose personal error is also known. Here it is necessary to take into consideration still another factor—one's personal susceptibility to suggestion. If we have confidence in the person through whom we verify our figures, we are inclined to obtain figures equal to his own. We have only to compare our earlier figures with those since we began to use him as a test, in order to see *whether*, and *to what extent* we are influenced by suggestion. Hence, to obviate this danger it is necessary to obtain our respective figures without communicating them to each other. It will also be necessary to take precautions not to be influenced by suggestion under any other circumstances. For instance, we are in hopes, while taking a series of measurements of school children, that we shall be able to prove that the heads of the more intelligent are larger than those of the less intelligent. In order that the figures shall be free from alterations due to suggestion, it is necessary that the measurer, while actually taking the measurements, shall be unaware which children are better and which are worse, from the intellectual point of view. The personal error cannot be calculated in regard to a single measurement and then applied to all the others, but it must be worked out anew for every separate measurement; it oscillates variously, as a matter of fact, in relation to the longer and shorter diameters, the cranial measurements, and the measurements of the trunk and the limbs. We are sufficiently skilled to take measurements when we have attained for measurements of cranial diameters a mean error of from 1 to 2 mm., for the vertical cranial diameter one of 4 mm., and for the stature, one of from 5 to 6 mm. Finally, in anthropometry, theory is of no value without a long and intelligent practice, constituting an actual and personal education in anthropometric technique. All anthropometric figures have a relative value dependent upon the extent of this education in the individual investigator. This is a case in which it may be said that the figures are worthless without the *signature*.