The Elementary Montessori Material - English Restoration ## Chapter 12 - Sentence Analyzis ## XII **SENTENCE ANALYSIS** ### I Simple Sentences The material for logical analysis consists of little rolls of fairly stiff paper, on which are printed simple, compound and complex sentences, in carefully prepared series. There is also a chart, divided into two columns of rectangular spaces, with the name of one sentence element printed in each space. The sentence read on the roll can be torn off part by part, and each of these parts is placed in one of the rectangles, according to the name printed on it. This is another application of the compartment box method used to analyze first the alphabet, then the sounds which go to make up the word, finally the words as parts of speech. Here, the compartments are reduced to a simple design. The charts for logical analysis are on colored paper and are artistically drawn and decorated. We have charts of four different kinds as regards ornament and color, for such details exert a considerable influence upon the work of the children. On the following page is a sample of the charts with its "sections." ### Chart A | VERB<br><br>(The verbal or nominal<br>predicate.) | Who is it that?<br>What is it that?<br><br>SUBJECT | | ------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------- | | Who? What?<br><br>(Direct object.) | To whom? To what?<br><br>(Indirect object.) | | By Whom? By What<br><br>(Agent.) | Of whom? Of what?<br><br>(Possessive, material.) | | When?<br><br>(Time.) | Where?<br><br>(Place.) | | Whence?<br><br>(Source.) | How?<br><br>(Manner.) | | Why?<br><br>(Cause.) | What for?<br><br>(Purpose.) | | By means of whom?<br>By means of what?<br><br>(Instrument.) | With whom?<br>With what?<br><br>(Accompaniment.) | | (Attributive (phrases).) | (Vocative.) | The two spaces at the top, subject and predicate, are somewhat larger and are more conspicuously decorated than the other rectangles below. The words *subject* and *verb* are printed entirely in large capitals. The other\[125\]\ \[126\] spaces, however, are much more simply decorated and the words are in small letters. This helps to distinguish the principal from the secondary elements in the sentences. The names of the parts of speech, and the questions which bring out the meaning of these names, are in different colors: for instance, the names may be black and the questions red, or the names may be in red and the questions in green. And the letters of the questions are larger than the letters of the names, except in the two upper spaces, where the words *subject* and *verb* are in the largest type. The child begins to see what a sentence is: that is, he begins to *concentrate* on this particular question. How many times he has read sentences, pronounced sentences, composed sentences! But now he is examining them in detail, *studying* them. The simple sentence is a short proposition, with completed meaning, which expresses an action or a situation, organizing its different parts around a *verb*. The first exercise for the child must be to find the verb, a task not very difficult after the preceding exercises on the parts of speech have been performed. When he has found the verb, it becomes essential for him to find the subject. The subject may be found by asking the question: *Who is it that*—? For example: The child reads. The word *reads* is the verb. The section of the roll where the word *reads* appears is torn off and placed in the space marked *Verb*. Then ask: "*Who is it that* reads?" The answer is, "*The child* reads." The section containing the word *the child* is torn off and placed in the space marked *Subject*. \[127\] Another sentence: on the roll the child finds written: *The glass is broken.* The teacher can briefly explain that the verb taken by itself, has no special meaning. *Is* means nothing! "*Is?* Is *what?*" Some attribute must be added: "Is *broken!*" Here we get a *nominal predicate*. When the verb contains some definite meaning in terms of action, for instance *reads*, we get a *verbal predicate*. The section of the roll containing *is broken* is torn off, accordingly, and placed in the space of the verb. But *what* is broken? *The glass!* The section containing the words *the glass* is placed in the space of the subject. All of this can be copied off by the child by hand, as follows: Simple sentence: The child reads.\ The child: Subject.\ Reads: Predicate (verbal). **Series I\ (Simple Sentences)** The first roll contains the following simple sentences without modifiers of any kind: —The child reads.\ —The glass is broken.\ —Charles is tall.\ —The trees are blossoming.\ —The blackboard is clean.\ —Who has come?\ —The pencil is broken.\ —The sky is blue.\ —I am reading.\ —I am studying.\ —The children are playing.\ —Time flies.\ —The teacher sings. \[128\] **Series II\ (Simple Sentences, containing a few modifiers)** The roll contains the following sentences, written one after another: —The mother loves her child dearly.\ —Johnny brought his teacher a rose.\ —You may keep the book for some days, Louis.\ —Mary, give the poor man a penny.\ —Where have you been, Mary?\ —I will do it, mother.\ —Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the whole blackboard.\ —Who drew the pretty picture?\ —Last night I showed the letter to father.\ —In the yard a red white and blue flag is waving.\ —Did you go to the theater last night?\ —The rain was beating against the window panes.\ —The dog is barking at the cat.\ —The poor deaf-mutes talk with their hands. Example of application: The section containing the first sentence, The mother loves her child dearly. is first torn off from the roll. Then the section containing the word *loves* is placed in the space marked *verb*. *Who* loves?—*the mother*. The section containing the words *the mother* is placed in the space marked *subject*. The mother loved *whom?* *Her child.* The section containing *her child* is torn off and placed in the space marked *direct object*. By thus reading the names printed in the spaces of the chart the child learns to classify the various kinds of modifiers. *How* does the mother love her child? *In what manner?* *Dearly.* The section containing the\[129\] word *dearly* is placed in the space marked *Manner* and the sentence is completed. Now the child can copy off these analyses immediately or make others, as he thinks best. The copy may be as follows: The mother loves her child dearly.\ The mother: Subject.\ Loves: Predicate (verbal).\ Her child: Direct object.\ Dearly: Adverb, manner. In classifying the vocatives and attributives, a little help from the teacher may be required. Example: You may keep the book for some days, Louis. The word *Louis* can be dramatized somewhat into a kind of invocation, as—*O Louis, you may keep the book* and so on. Vocatives can almost always be identified by trying the exclamatory *O* before them. In the sentence, Little Harry, only three years old, has cleaned the whole blackboard. *only three years old* is an attributive of Harry. It should be torn off and placed in the space marked *Attributive*. **Series III\ (Simple sentences with two or more modifiers of the same kind)** The roll contains the following sentences in sections which may be read and torn off one after the other as the child unrolls the strip: —The child sleeps and dreams.\ \[130\]—Everybody likes fruit and flowers.\ —He took paper, pen and ink to write to his friends.\ —Charles opened and closed the book.\ —The doctor and the father left the sick child's room.\ —The women recommended calmness, patience and prudence.\ —In the beginning God created heaven and earth.\ —He will always have money and friends.\ —In the street we could see crowds of men and a few women. **Series IV\ (Elliptical sentences with subject understood)** \[This situation does not however arise in English, which, save in the imperative, always requires at least a pronominal subject for the verb.\] Here, the child interprets the sentence, completing it and finding the element that is lacking. —La ringrazio (*I* thank you).\ —Verrete? (Will *you* come?)\ —Sono stanco (*I* am tired).\ —Non mi sento bene oggi (*I* don't feel well to-day).\ —Com'è andata? (How did *it* turn out?)\ —Dico la verità (*I* will tell you all about it).\ —Siamo contentissimi (*We* are delighted).\ —Vi saluto (*I* bid you good-by).\ —Vado a casa (*I* am going home).\ —Lampeggia (*It* is lightening).\ —M'impose silenzio (*He* told me to say nothing).\ —Ascolto (*I* am listening). **Series V\ (Elliptical sentences where the predicate is understood)** —Silence!\ —Why all this noise?\ —After me, the deluge!\ —The sooner the better!\ \[131\]—Good luck to you, sir!\ —What nasty weather!\ —What an attractive school!\ —O for a calm, a thankful heart!\ —A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse!\ —Away with him!\ —Fire! Fire!\ —Here, here, quick!\ —Honor to the brave! **Series VI\ (Elliptical sentences where the direct object is understood: *incomplete predication*)** —They drove away.\ —He spends like a millionaire.\ —He drinks like a fish.\ —The farmer's boy had just milked.\ —Do you understand?\ —The cavalry spurred across the field at full speed.\ —Did you see?\ —The child did not hear. **Series VII\ (Sentences with numerous modifiers and of increased difficulty)** —The poor boy came home that night, all tired out, covered with mud from head to foot, with his coat torn and with a black and blue lump on his forehead.\ —Ethel hurried home as fast as possible.\ —We heard the clatter of horse's hoofs on the pavement.\ —And so through the night went his cry of alarm\ To every Middlesex village and farm.\ \[132\]—The beautiful child with the black hair is here on the lawn.\ —And yet through the gloom and the night\ The fate of a nation was riding that night.\ —The woman walked along in front of me with the child in her arms.\ —The girl's voice sounded distinctly above all the others.\ —To-morrow I shall come to town on foot.\ —He spent the summer every year with his parents in their old home on the mountain side.\ —That evening the old house was more lonely than ever.\ —They are very busy this morning.\ —I never did such a thing in my life!\ —Every now and then a group of people hurriedly crossed the street.\ —The doctor whispered something into the Mayor's ear.\ —Just then some one knocked at the door.\ —Here I am back again at my work.\ —Mary had a little lamb\ With fleece as white as snow. ### The Order of Elements in the Sentence: Permutations Rules: The English (the Italian) language tends to follow the direct order in prose, inversion being very rare. In poetry, inversion is very common. The direct order consists in placing: first, the subject, then the predicate, then the objects, direct and indirect; then the modifiers follow according to the importance they derive from the meaning of the sentence. These ideas are after all so simple and clear that the child rarely has any difficulty in understanding them. Nevertheless, it is much easier to give the child a vivid impression of them by the permutation of parts than by\[133\] explanation. This permutation is made very convenient by the sentences being printed in sections which may be moved about and combined at will. Just as the sequence of the various parts of speech was made clear by transposing the parts, here the same result can be accomplished by transposing the sections of the printed slip. Example: | We | heard | the clatter | of the horse's hoofs | | -- | ----- | ----------- | -------------------- | |    (subject)    |    (predicate)     |    (direct object)     |    (attribute) | | on the pavement. | |    (place: adverb) | The following combinations are possible results of permutation: > We—heard—the clatter—of the horse's hoofs—on the pavement. > > We—the clatter—heard—on the pavement—of the horse's hoofs. > > We—of the horse's hoofs—on the pavement—the clatter—heard. > > Of the horse's hoofs—on the pavement—heard—the clatter—we, etc., etc. **Series VIII\ (The inverted order)** The effect of direct and inverted order can be shown in every sentence. But it is better to try examples of inversion from poetic language. In this series, all the sentences show inversion of one type or another: —Meanwhile, impatient to mount and ride,\ Booted and spurred, with a heavy stride\ On the opposite shore walked Paul Revere.\ \ —Upon the roof we sat that night!\ The noise of bells went sweeping by;\ Awesome bells they were to me.\ \ \[134\]—Still sits the school-house by the road.\ \ —Before them under the garden-wall\ Forward and back\ Went drearily singing the chore-girl small.\ \ —And day by day more holy grew\ Each spot of the sacred ground.\ \ —There thronged the citizens with terror dumb. Exercises on the putting together of sentence elements can lead to practise in the identification and use of grammatical forms as parts of speech, which the study of single words would not at first permit; as for instance, forms of the verbs used as nouns (infinitive and gerund as subject and object), the difference between personal pronouns used as direct or indirect objects, and so on. **Series IX\ (The forms of the verb)** The roll contains the two forms of the verb, active and passive, in sections. The analysis is conducted on the chart for the simple sentence: | Active Voice | Passive Voice | Reflexive | | ------------ | ------------- | --------- | | (Action performed by subject) | (Action performed by agent) | | | Mary dresses the little girl. | The little girl is dressed by Mary. | The little girl dresses herself. | | The teacher praised Charles for the drawing. | Charles was praised by the teacher for the drawing. | Charles praised himself for the drawing. | | The little girl excused George for his roughness. | George was excused for his roughness by the little girl. | George excuses himself for his roughness. | | The janitor accused the boy. | The boy was accused by the janitor. | The boy accused himself. | | The old man liked Albert very much. | Albert was very much liked by the old man. | Albert liked himself very much. | | \[135\]The nurse tucked the child into the warm bed. | The child was tucked into the warm bed by the nurse. | The child tucked himself into the warm bed. | | The girl rocked her little friend to sleep in the rocking-chair. | The little friend was rocked to sleep in the rocking-chair by the little girl. | Her little friend rocked herself to sleep in the rocking-chair. | | The teacher saw Henry in the large mirror. | Henry was seen in the large mirror by the teacher. | Henry saw himself in the large mirror. | | The angry boy hurt Louis. | Louis was hurt by the angry boy. | Louis hurt himself. | **Series X\ (Use of the personal pronoun)** The sentences previously given for analysis in teaching the personal pronouns can be used over again at this point for analysis on the sentence-chart. —The children wrote a letter to their mother\ The children wrote her a letter\ They wrote it to her\ \ —They gave their mother a surprise\ They gave her a surprise\ \ —I told father all about it\ I told him all about it\ \ —Charles soothed his sister with a kiss\ He soothed her with a kiss\ \ —Will you give your drawing to the teacher?\ Will you give her your drawing?\ Will you give it to her?\ \ —Don't think badly of your schoolmates\ Don't think badly of them\ \ —Show those dirty hands to the teacher\ Show her those dirty hands\ Show them to her\ \ —Tell the story to the children in the other room\ Tell it to the children in the other room\ Tell it to them there \[136\] The exercise in permutation brings out the relative positions of the direct and indirect objects; as also the conditions under which the preposition *to* is required before the indirect object. ### II Compound and Complex Sentences Here we are dealing with a number of propositions (clauses) which combine into one complete meaning. The clauses fit together in the sentences just as did the various elements in the simple sentence. The material for the analysis is therefore analogous to that used in the analysis of the simple sentence: strips of paper in rolls on which are written the sentences to be analyzed, and a chart with spaces where the detached pieces may be placed, according to the designation of these spaces. The principal space on the chart is reserved for the main clause, around which the other clauses are arranged, as coordinate or subordinate. Since the work of logical analysis of the complex sentence is sufficiently interesting to attract the attention of the child to various forms of study, the material contains in addition to the rolls and the chart, a number of test-cards where the analysis is completed and logically demonstrated. These cards serve as tests of the accuracy of the work done by the children, and as actual charts for analytical study. Of course, when the child is doing his exercise with the strips of paper and the chart, he does not have these test-cards before him. He should, however, always have free access to them. His interest in the game is to succeed by himself in placing the different propositions where they belong. \[137\] **Chart B** | PRINCIPAL CLAUSE | | ---------------- | | Incidental Clauses (Parenthetical clauses) | | SUBORDINATE ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE (Adjective or Relative clauses) | | who is it that...?<br>subordinate *subject* clause<br>(subject clause) | whom...? what...?<br>subordinate *object* clause<br>(object clause) | | when...?<br>subordinate clause of *time*<br>(temporal clause) | where...?<br>subordinate clause of *place*<br>(locative clause) | | for what purpose...?<br>subordinate clause of *purpose*<br>(purpose clause) | why...? for what cause?<br>subordinate clause of *cause*<br>(causal clause) | | how...? than what?<br>subordinate clause of *manner* or comparison<br>(modal clauses) | on what condition...?<br>subordinate clause of *condition*<br>(conditional clause) | | in spite of what...?<br>subordinate clause of *concession*<br>(concessive clause) | with what result...?<br>subordinate clause of *result*<br>(result clause) | \[138\] **Series I\ (Compound Sentences)** The clauses are independent of each other. Each contains a complete meaning, and each therefore could stand alone. It is a question of simple sentences *coordinated* with each other. —I hunted carefully everywhere and at last I found it.\ —She started in fear, lifted her face and shaded it from the strong sun.\ —The bees hummed in the warm sunshine and the cat sat purring at her side.\ —She dropped her sewing and went to the door.\ —The girl covered her eyes with her hands and wept.\ —They looked into each other's faces: each of them had a question to ask and neither dared to speak.\ —I am a lowly peasant and you are a gallant knight.\ —They all looked at the speaker, and crowded round him and waited for his next word to attack him.\ —Then he began to weep and he tore his hair in anguish.\ —Louis clapped his hands for joy and began to dance around the room.\ —He looked into the mirror, straightened his tie, smoothed his hair and went out to greet his two friends.\ —She went to the window and looked out over the stormy sea. The child divides these sentences into clauses, analyzing each separately. Then, placing one under the other, he is impressed by the fact that each has a complete meaning and can stand by itself; save that in English the subject of the first clause is often carried over to the second: I hunted carefully everywhere.\ And at last I found it.\ \ I am a lowly peasant.\ \[139\]And you are a gallant knight.\ \ Louis clapped his hands for joy.\ began to dance around the room.\ \ He looked into the mirror.\ straightened his tie.\ smoothed his hair.\ *and* went out to meet his two friends.\ \ The bees hummed in the warm sunshine.\ And the cat sat purring at her side.\ \ Then he began to weep.\ And he tore his hair in anguish.\ \ The girl covered her face with her hands.\ *and* wept.\ \ They looked at the speaker.\ crowded around him.\ *and* waited for his next word to attack him. **Series II\ (The Complex Sentence)** Here only the main clause has a complete meaning. The other clauses make sense only when they are united with the main clause. On this roll, the subordinate clauses are attributes of one of the elements of the main clause (relative clauses). —The gold ring which you found yesterday on the stairs belongs to my mother.\ —The man who brought me to school this morning was my uncle.\ —He was educated by his sister who taught him many beautiful things.\ —The colors which Aunt Anna gave me Christmas are very good.\ —A little girl who was at a party sat looking with longing eyes at a plate of sandwiches.\ \[140\]—The knife with which you sharpened my pencil was very dull.\ —Bees don't care about the snow!\ I can tell you why it's so:\ Once I caught a little bee\ Who was much too warm for me.—(F. D. Sherman)\ —We have at home the prettiest cat you ever saw.\ —Here are the pennies my mother gave me.\ —The children I play with did not come to school to-day.\ —The house we live in is beautiful and airy.\ —Stars are the little daisies white\ That dot the meadow of the night.—(Sherman) **Test Cards** | Principal Clause | Attributive Subordinate Clause | | ---------------- | ------------------------------ | | (The words modified by the relative<br>clause are in *italics*). | (Relative or Adjective Clauses)<br>(The clause has no meaning until united with<br>some noun in the main clause). | | The gold *ring* belongs to mother | which you found on the stairs yesterday | | The *man* was my uncle | who brought me to school this morning | | He was educated by his *sister* | who taught him many beautiful things | | The *colors* are very good | which Aunt Anna gave me Christmas | | A little *girl* sat looking with longing eyes at a plate of sandwiches | who was at a party | | Once I caught a little *bee* | who was much too warm for me | | Stars are the little *daisies* white | that dot the meadow of the night | **RELATIVE OMITTED** |   | *What word is omitted?* | | - | --------------------- | | Here are the *pennies* | —my mother gave me | | The *children* did not come to school to-day | with—I play | | The *house* is beautiful and airy | in—we live | \[141\] **Series III** In the preceding roll, the subordinate clauses completed the meaning and constituted an attribute of *one word* of the principal clause. Here, however, the subordinate clauses refer to the whole content of the main clause and complete *the whole thought* of the main clause. They have, therefore, a logical dependence on the main clause. The child will be guided in finding the place of the different subordinate clauses and in classifying them according to the designations of the spaces by the questions which appear in the analytical chart. It is presupposed that he can readily identify the main clause itself. The following sentences come one after the other on the rolled strip of paper: —Do not forget that your objects are not in their places.\ —Will you play with me when you have finished your work?\ —When the sun is low our shadows are longer.\ —I hope that you will write me a long letter as soon as you arrive in Europe.\ —The little girl stood on tiptoe so that she could see the queen as the procession went by.\ —Brer Rabbit thought it was the worst time he had had in all his life.\ —All is well that ends well, says the proverb.\ —The people mourned when the good President died.\ —It is not right that the big boys should have all the candy.\ —As she sat there reading, a beautiful red bird flew in through the window.\ —They could not play in the yard because the ground was too wet.\ —Remember that you must thank the lady who gave you the book. \[142\] **Test Card** | Principal and Incidental Clauses | Question | Subordinate and Attributive Clauses | | -------------------------------- | -------- | ----------------------------------- | | Do not forget | what? | that your objects are not in their places. | | Will you play with me | when? | when you have finished your work? | | Our shadows are longer | when? | when the sun is low. | | I hope | what? | that you will write me a long letter. | |   | when? | as soon as you arrive in Europe. | | The little girl stood on tip-toe | why? | so that she could see the queen | |   | when? | as the procession went by. | | Brer Rabbit thought | what? | (that) it was the worst *time* he had had in all his life (*attributive, relative* *pronoun omitted*). | | All is well says the proverb (incidental clause) |   | that ends well (*attributive*). | | The people mourned | when? | the good President died. | | It is not right | what? | that the big boys should have all the candy. | | A beautiful red bird flew in through the window | when? | as she sat there reading. | | They could not play in the yard | why? | because the ground was too wet. | | Remember | what? | that you must thank the *lady* who gave you the book (*attributive*). | **Series IV** Here we have sentences both compound and complex, containing both coordinate and subordinate clauses. —As he said this, he rose from his chair and left the room.\ \[143\]—The two friends shook hands and said they would always be faithful to each other.\ —When the wolf came out, Brer Rabbit threw the stone on him and laughed.\ —When the lady knocked on the door, a smiling old man appeared and asked what he might do for her.\ —The children walked along in the forest and became very hungry because they had had nothing to eat since morning.\ —The king's face grew very red and he angrily ordered that the deceitful general be put to death.\ —Since the wind was blowing hard, the captain told the children to keep off the deck and a sailor carried them to their state-rooms.\ —The dogs began to bark and the people all ran out into the streets as the uproar of the combat increased.\ —Where that tree now stands, there was once a beautiful house and a fine road led up to it.\ —He had left the village and mounted the steep,\ And under the alders that skirt its edge,\ Now soft on the sand, now loud on the ledge,\ Is heard the tramp of his steed as he rides. **Test Card** | Principal Clause | Coordinate Clause | Question | Subordinate and Attributive Clauses | | ---------------- | ----------------- | -------- | ----------------------------------- | | He rose from his chair | and left the room | when? | as he said this | | The two friends shook hands | and said | what? | that they would always be faithful to each other | | Brer Rabbit threw the stone on him | and laughed | when? | when the wolf came out | | A smiling old man appeared | and asked | what? | what he might do for her | |   |   | when? | when the lady knocked on the door | | The children walked along in the forest | and became very hungry | why? | because they had had nothing to eat since morning | | The king's face grew very red | and he angrily ordered | what? | that the deceitful general be put to death | | The captain told the children to keep off the deck | and a sailor carried them to their state-rooms | why? | because the wind was blowing hard | | The dogs began to bark | and the people all ran into the streets | when? | as the uproar of the combat increased | | There was once a beautiful house | and a fine road led up to it | where? | where that tree now stands\[144\] | | He had left the village | and mounted the steep | |   | under the *alders* now soft on the sand, now loud on the ledge, is heard the tramp of his steed |   | that skirt its edge (attributive). | |   |   | when? | as he rides | **Series V\ (Correlative Sentences)** The clauses are here dependent upon each other: —The flowers were so beautiful that we picked them all.\ —That day he was so lazy that he did not get his work done.\ —She sings much better than she plays.\ —The more one studies, the more one learns.\ —Either you return your objects to their places or some one else must do it.\ —Not only was the man very cross, but he actually punished the little boy. **Test Card** | Principal Clause | Question | Subordinate Clause | | ---------------- | -------- | ------------------ | | The flowers were so beautiful | with what result? | that we picked them all. | | That day he was so lazy | with what result? | that he did not get his work done. | | She sings much better | than what? | than she plays. | | The more one studies | with what result? | the more one learns. | | Either you return your objects to their places | with what result? | or some one else must do it. | | Not only was the man very cross | with what result? | but he actually punished the little boy. | **Series VI\ (The Order of Clauses in Sentences:\ Sentence Forms in Prose and Verse)** Our material makes it very easy for the children to understand the mutual dependence of the subordinate\[145\] clauses. We take the commonest cases within easy reach of the children. There are clauses of the first degree of subordination, dependent directly on the principal clause. There are others of the second degree of subordination which depend on a subordinate clause (clause subordinate to a subordinate). We have the same situation in coordinates. We have the first degree of coordination when the clause is parallel with the principal clause, and the second degree when the clause is parallel with a subordinate clause. Since the slips have as many sections as there are clauses, the clauses may be arranged on the table in the order of their subordination, keeping, for example, the principal clause to the left, and arranging the subordinate clauses downward and downward to the right. Take, for instance, the sentence: —The old man liked to tell stories; and he would laugh heartily when the women were frightened at the terrible things that he had to relate. As the different clauses are torn off they are placed on a chart marked into sections by vertically placed arrows: the principal clause to the right of the first arrow; the first subordinate clause to the right of the second; the subordinate to the subordinate to the right of the third, and so on. The above sentence results as follows: | Principal and Coordinate | 1st subordinate | subordinate to subordinate | | ------------------------ | --------------- | -------------------------- | | The old man liked to tell stories |   |   | | and he would laugh heartily |   |   | |   | when the women were frightened at the terrible things |   | |   |   | that he had to tell. | \[146\] ### CHART C |  | Principal and coordinate (incidental) |   | 1st subordinate and its coordinates |   | subordinate to subordinate | | --- | ------------------------------------- | - | ----------------------------------- | - | -------------------------- | | I shall feel better |   |   | |   |  | if you will let me sit next to the window | |   |   |  | where there is more air. | Here is another example: —I often sit and wish that I\ Could be a kite up in the sky,\ And ride upon the breeze, and go\ Whatever way it chanced to blow. |  | Principal and Coordinates |   | 1st subordinate and coordinate |   |   | subordinate to subordinate | | --- | ------------------------- | - | ------------------------------ | - | - | -------------------------- | | I often sit<br>and wish | |   |  | that I could be a kite up in the sky<br>and ride upon the breeze<br>and go whatever way | |   |   |   |   |  | it chanced to blow. | Here, finally, is another: —I was a bad boy, I admit, but no one ever paid any attention to me, unless I was to be blamed for something wrong that I had done, or was accused of doing. |  | I was a bad boy<br>I admit (incidental)<br>but no one ever paid any attention to me | | --- | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- | |   |  | unless I was to be blamed<br>for something wrong | |   |   |  | that I had done, or was accused of doing.<br>(coordinate of second subordinate) | In using this material, the child tears off the clause-slips using the analytical sentence-chart (Chart B). This gives\[147\] him the classification of the clauses. The strips are then to be placed on the dependence chart (Chart C) according to the indications of the arrows. This brings out the mutual relation of the clauses. ### Permutations The preceding exercises have created in the child a notion of sentence construction and of the position of the clauses which make it up. Our material permits, of course, as an exercise supplementary to the analyses, dislocations and translocations of parts just as was true with the simple sentence. To derive the full benefit of this possibility, the teacher should have in mind the general rules for location of clauses: Adjective clauses (relative, attributive) always follow, and most often directly, the noun they modify. Subject subordinate clauses may stand either before or after the principal clause. If the subject clause follows, it is usually anticipated before the verb by the pronoun it (just as a following noun subject is anticipated by *there*). (In Italian, if the object clause precedes the main clause, it is usually repeated before the noun by a conjunctive object personal pronoun.) The position of the other clauses depends on considerations of emphasis. The direct order for complex sentences is in general similar to that for simple sentences: subject clause\ principal clause\ object clause\ adverbial clauses. Coordination is possible with subordinate as well as with principal clauses. \[148\] The special exercises on the complex sentence conclude with some practise in turning simple inversions as found in poetry into direct sentence order. **Series VII** The detachable strips are used here also. The exercise should be conducted with reference to the sentence charts. **1** | —Just where the tide of battle turns,<br>Erect and lonely stood old John Burns ...<br>And buttoned over his manly breast<br>Was a bright blue coat with a rolling collar. | Old John Burns stood, erect and lonely just where the tide of battle turns....<br><br>A bright blue coat, with a rolling collar, was buttoned over his manly breast. | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | **2** | —It was terrible: on the right<br>Raged for hours the deadly fight,<br>Thundered the battery's double bass,<br>Difficult music for men to face;<br>While on the left, where now the graves<br>Undulate like the living waves<br>That all that day unceasing swept<br>Round shot ploughed the upland glades.<br>Up to the pits the rebels kept,<br>Bret Harte.—*John Burns of Gettysburg.* | It was terrible: the deadly fight raged for hours on the right; the battery's double bassthundered,—difficult music formen to face; while round shot ploughed the upland glades on the left, where now the graves undulate like the living waves that swept unceasing all that day up to the pits the rebels kept. | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | **3** | —Merrily rang the bridle reins, and scarf and plume steamed gay,<br>As fast beside her father's gate the riders held their way . . .\[149\]<br>"Now break your shield asunder and shatter your sign and boss,<br>Unmeet for peasant-wedded warms, your knightly knee across.<br>Whittier.—*King Volmer.* | The bridle reins rang merrily and scarf and plume streamed gay, as the riders, held their way fast by her father's gate.<br><br>Now break your shield asunder and shatter across your knightly knee your sign and boss unmeet for peasant-wedded arms. | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | **4** | The breaking waves dashed high<br>On a stern and rock bound coast;<br>And the woods against a stormy sky<br>Their giant branches tossed.<br>And the heavy night hung dark<br>The hills and waters o'er,<br>When a band of Pilgrims moored their bark<br>On the wild New England shore.<br><br>Not as the conqueror comes<br>They the true hearted came,<br>Not with the roll of the stirring drums<br>And the trumpet that sings of fame.<br>Mrs. Hemans. | The breaking waves dashed high on a stern and rock-bound coast; and the woods tossed their giant branches against a stormy sky.<br><br>The heavy night hung dark over (o'er) the hills and waters, when a band of Pilgrims moored their bark on the wild New England shore.<br><br><br>They, the true hearted, came not as the conqueror comes, not with the roll of the stirring drums and the trumpet that sings of fame. | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | **5** | My golden spurs now bring to me<br>And bring to me my richest mail,<br>For tomorrow I go over land and sea<br>In search of the Holy Grail.<br>Shall never a bed for me be spread.<br>Nor shall a pillow be under my head,<br>Till I begin my vow to keep;<br>Here on the rushes will I sleep.<br>And perchance there may come a vision true<br>Ere day create the world anew.<br>Lowell. | Bring to me now my golden spurs and bring to me my richest mail; for I go in search of the Holy Grail tomorrow over land and sea; a bed shall never be spread for me, nor shall a pillow be under my head till I begin to keep my vow; I will sleep here on the rushes, and perchance a true vision will come *before* (ere) day creates the world anew. | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | \[150\] **6** | Glad tidings of great joy I bring<br>To you and all mankind:<br>To you, in David's town this day<br>Is born of David's line<br>The Saviour, who is Christ the Lord,<br>And this shall be the sign:<br>The heavenly Babe you there shall find<br>To human view displayed,<br>All meanly wrapt in swaddling bands<br>And in a manger laid.<br>Tate.—*While Shepherds Watched.* | I bring to you and all mankind glad tidings of great joy. The Saviour, who is Christ the Lord, is born to you this day in David's town, of David's line; and this shall be the sign: you shall find the heavenly Babe there displayed to human view, all meanly wrapt in swaddling clothes and laid in a manger. | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | **7** | The harp that once through Tara's halls<br>The soul of music shed,<br>Now hangs on Tara's walls<br>As if that soul were fled.<br>So sleeps the pride of former days,<br>So glory's thrill is o'er,<br>And hearts that once beat high for praise<br>Now feel that pulse no more.<br><br>No more to chiefs and ladies bright<br>The harp of Tara swells;<br>The chord alone that breaks at night<br>Its tale of ruin tells.<br>Thus Freedom now so seldom wakes,<br>The only throb she gives,<br>Is when some heart indignant breaks<br>To show that still she lives.<br>Thomas Moore. | The harp, that once shed the soul of music through Tara's halls, now hangs on Tara's walls, as though that soul were fled. So the pride of former days sleeps, so glory's thrill is over, and hearts that once beat high for praise now feel that pulse no more. The harp of Tara swells no more to chiefs and bright ladies: the chord alone, that breaks at night, tells its tale of ruin. Thus Freedom now wakes so seldom (that) the only throb she gives is when some indignant heart breaks to show that she still lives. | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | \[151\] **8** | Childhood is the bough where slumbered<br>Birds and blossoms many numbered;<br>Age that bough with snow encumbered.<br>Longfellow. | Childhood is the bough where many numbered birds and blossoms slumbered; Age encumbered that bough with snow. | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | **Test Cards** **1** | Just where the tide of battle turns | subordinate of place (locative) | | ----------------------------------- | ------------------------------- | | Erect and lonely stood old John Burns | principal | | And, buttoned over his manly breast, | (verbal attributive phrase) | | Was a bright blue coat with a rolling collar          | coordinate of principal | **2** | It was terrible | principal | | --------------- | --------- | | on the right | | raged for hours the deadly fight | coordinate of principal | | thundered the battery's double bass | coordinate of principal | | Difficult music for men to face | (verbal attributive phrase in apposition) | | While on the left (round shot ploughed, etc.) | subordinate of time (temporal) begun | | where now the graves | (*While* may be considered as adversative coordinate) | | Undulate like the living waves | subordinate to subordinate (locative) 2d degree | | That all that day unceasing swept | attributive subordinate (relative adjectival clause modifying *waves*) of 3d degree | | up to the pits | | the rebels kept | attributive subordinate (relative pronoun omitted) of 4th degree | | Round shot ploughed the upland glades | subordinate of time (concluded). | \[152\] **3** | Merrily rang the bridle reins | principal | | ----------------------------- | --------- | | and scarf and plume streamed gay | coordinate | | As fast beside her father's gate the | | riders held their way | subordinate of time | | Now break your shield asunder | principal | | and shatter | | your sign and boss | coordinate | | Unmeet for peasant-wedded arms            | | your knightly knee across | **4** | The breaking waves dashed high | | ------------------------------ | | On a stern and rock-bound coast | principal | | <br>And the woods against a stormy sky | | Their giant branches tossed | coordinate | | <br>And the heavy night hung dark | | The hills and waters o'er | principal (coordinated in paragraph) | | <br>When a band of pilgrims moored their bark | | On a wild New England shore | subordinate temporal | | <br>Not | principal begun | | as the conqueror comes | subordinate of manner (modal) | | They the true hearted came | principal concluded | | Not with the roll of the stirring drums | | and the trumpet | coordinate (elipsis of verb *they came* continued from principal) | | that sings of fame           | attributive (relative) subordinate to coordinate. | **5** | My golden spurs now bring to me | principal | | ------------------------------- | --------- | | And bring to me my richest mail | coordinate\[153\] | | For tomorrow I go over land and sea | subordinate of cause (causal): may be considered coordinate of *reason* | | In search of the Holy Grail | | Shall never a bed for me be spread | principal | | Nor shall a pillow be under my head | coordinate | | Till I begin my vow to keep | subordinate of time (temporal) | | Here on the rushes will I sleep | principal | | And perchance there may come a vision true | coordinate | | Ere day create the world anew | subordinate temporal. | **6** | Great tidings of great joy I bring | | ---------------------------------- | | To you and all mankind | principal | | <br>To you in David's town this day | | Is born of David's line | | The Saviour | principal | | <br>who is Christ the Lord | <br>attributive (relative) subordinate | | <br>And this shall be the sign | coordinate | | <br>The heavenly Babe you there shall find          | | To human view displayed | | All meanly wrapped in swaddling bands | | And in a manger laid. | simple sentence with three coordinate verbal phrases. | **7** | The harp | principal begun | | -------- | --------------- | | that once through | | Tara's hall | | The soul of music shed | attributive subordinate (relative)\[154\] | | Now hangs on Tara's walls | principal concluded | | As if that soul were fled | subordinate of manner (modal) | | So sleeps the pride of former days | principal | | So glory's thrill is o'er | coordinate | | And hearts | coordinate begun | | that once beat high for praise | attributive relative subordinate | | Now feel that pulse no more | coordinate concluded. | | No more to chiefs and ladies bright | | The harp of Tara swells | principal | | The chord alone | coordinate begun | | that breaks at night | attributive relative subordinate | | Its tale of ruin tells | coordinate concluded. | | Thus freedom now so seldom wakes | principal | | The only throb | subordinate result begun (conjunction *that* omitted) | | she gives | subordinate to subordinate (2d degree; relative omitted) | | Is when some heart indignant breaks | | To show | subordinate result concluded | | that still she lives | subordinate object (noun) clause of 2d degree. | **8** | Childhood is the bough | principal | | ---------------------- | --------- | | where slumbered | | Birds and blossoms many-numbered | subordinate locative (of place) | | <br>Age that bow with snows encumbered           | <br>coordinate. | \[155\] (Note: the best English poetry makes far less use of inversion than does Italian. Such exercises as the above could be profitably applied to the analysis of the different kinds of phrases (adjective, adverbial, etc.). It should be noted that Dr. Montessori in her own exercises treats verbal phrases (participles and infinitives) as subordinate clauses.—Tr.) ### Coordinating and Subordinating Conjunctions This study of the complex sentence leads the child to a more precise comprehension of the values of certain parts of speech as, notably, the conjunction. We have found, in fact, that little difficulty is experienced in realizing the distinction between the terms *coordinating* and *subordinating* as applied to conjunctions which *unite* clauses but in different ways. The following charts serve to cover the vast majority of cases that the child is likely to meet. We may add that at this point it may be found useful to have the child analyze the complex sentences which appeared in the commands and readings already familiar to him (see below under *Reading*). **COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS** *Copulatives:* and, also, too, besides, moreover, further, furthermore, nor. *Disjunctives:* or else, otherwise, rather. *Adversatives:* but, nevertheless, however, notwithstanding, yet, still, while, only, instead. *Declaratives:* namely, in other words, that is. *Asseverative:* in fact, assuredly, really. *Illative:* hence, therefore, then, accordingly, so. **PRINCIPAL AND COORDINATE CLAUSES MAY BEGIN WITH ONE OF THESE CONJUNCTIONS** \[156\] **Chart D\ THE CONJUNCTIONS IN THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE** | Principal Clause | | ---------------- | | Incidental (parenthetical) clause | | Adjective (relative, attributive) clause<br>who, which, that, whose, whom | | Subordinate subject clause<br>that | Subordinate object clause<br>that | | Subordinate clause of time<br>(temporal)<br>when, while, as soon as,<br>before, after, till, until | Subordinate clause of place<br>(locative)<br>where, whence, wherever, whither | | Subordinate clause of purpose<br>(final, purpose clause)<br>that, in order that, so that<br>in as much as | Subordinate clause of cause<br>(casual clause)<br>as, because, for, since, | | Subordinate clause of<br>manner and comparison<br>(modal clause)<br>as (manner), than (comparison) | Subordinate clause of condition<br>(conditional clause)<br>if, unless, provided,<br>provided that | | Subordinate clause of<br>concession<br>(concessive clause)<br>though, although, even if,<br>however, notwithstanding that | Subordinate clause of<br>result and correlatives<br>that, so that (result)<br>so ... as, so ... that<br>(correlative, degree) | \[157\] ### Sequence of Tenses A special series of exercises on the relations of the subordinate to the principal clause brings out the changes in tense made necessary in the subordinate clause as the tense of the principal clause varies. **Series VIII\ \ Sequence of Tenses\ \ Group A\ (Causal Clauses)** | —I | am writing | to | you | because | I | have | some | important | news. | | -- | ---------- | -- | --- | ------- | - | ---- | ---- | --------- | ----- | |    " | wrote | " | " | " | " | had | " | " | " | | —I | shall | not | go | because | I | must | attend | to | my | work. | | -- | ----- | --- | -- | ------- | - | ---- | ------ | -- | -- | ----- | |     " | did | " | " | " | " | had to | " | " | " | " | | —I | am | glad | that | you | have | done | so | well. | | -- | -- | ---- | ---- | --- | ---- | ---- | -- | ----- | |     " | was | " | " | " | had | " | " | " | | —I | will give | it | to | you | since | you | insist | on | having | it. | | -- | --------- | -- | -- | --- | ----- | --- | ------ | -- | ------ | --- | |     " | gave | " | " | " | " | " | insisted " | " | " | | —He | does | not | answer | because | your | letter | is | insulting. | | --- | ---- | --- | ------ | ------- | ---- | ------ | -- | ---------- | |     " | did | " | " | " | " | " | was | " | **Group B\ (Miscellaneous Clauses)** | —I | shall be | proud | of | you | if | you | become | a | fine | scholar. | | -- | -------- | ----- | -- | --- | -- | --- | ------ | - | ---- | -------- | |     " | should | " | " | " | " | " | became | " | " | " | | —I | believe | that | only | the | rich | can | be | happy. | | -- | ------- | ---- | ---- | --- | ---- | --- | -- | ------ | |     " | believed | " | " | " | " | could | " | " | | —I | am | waiting | here | till | my | father | returns | from | town. | | -- | -- | ------- | ---- | ---- | -- | ------ | ------- | ---- | ----- | |     " | waited | " | " | " | " | returned | " | " | | —They | expect | that | something | will | happen | before | long. | | ----- | ------ | ---- | --------- | ---- | ------ | ------ | ----- | |     " | expected | " | " | would | " | " | "\[158\] | | —He | is doing | that | for | you, | in | order | that | you | may | go | to | school. | | --- | -------- | ---- | --- | ---- | -- | ----- | ---- | --- | --- | -- | -- | ------- | |     " | did | " | " | " | " | " | " | " | might | " | " | " | | —He | will let | you | know | where | he | has | been. | | --- | -------- | --- | ---- | ----- | -- | --- | ----- | |     " | let | " | " | " | " had | " | **Group C\ (Object Clauses)** | —They | are | telling | me | what | they | have | been | doing. | | ----- | --- | ------- | -- | ---- | ---- | ---- | ---- | ------ | |     " | were | " | " | " | " | had | " | " | | —I | promise | you | that | I | will | do | everything | punctually. | | -- | ------- | --- | ---- | - | ---- | -- | ---------- | ----------- | |     " | promised | " | " | " | would | " | " | " | | —I | think | he | will | not | be | back | before | Wednesday. | | -- | ----- | -- | ---- | --- | -- | ---- | ------ | ---------- | |     " | thought | " | would | " | " | " | " | " | | —Do | you | know | that | your | friend | has | gone | away? | | --- | --- | ---- | ---- | ---- | ------ | --- | ---- | ----- | |     Did | " | " | " | " | " | had | " | " | | —I | assure | you | that | I | will | take | good | care | of | it. | | -- | ------ | --- | ---- | - | ---- | ---- | ---- | ---- | -- | --- | |     " | assured | " | " | " | would | " | " | " | " | " | | —I | repeat | that | you | ought | to | be | ashamed | of | yourself. | | -- | ------ | ---- | --- | ----- | -- | -- | ------- | -- | --------- | |     " | repeated | " | " | " | " | have been | " | " | " | **Group D\ (Conditional Sentences)** | —I | would | read | this | book | too, | if | I | could. | | -- | ----- | ---- | ---- | ---- | ---- | -- | - | ------ | |     " | " | have read | " | " | " | " | " | had been able. | | —If | I | see | him, | I | shall | tell | him | what | you | say. | | --- | - | --- | ---- | - | ----- | ---- | --- | ---- | --- | ---- | |     " | " | saw | " | " | should | " | " | " | " | said. | | —I | will | finish | this | work, | if | you | can | wait. | | -- | ---- | ------ | ---- | ----- | -- | --- | --- | ----- | |     " | would | " | " | " | " | " | could | " | | —I | shall | come | sooner | if | I | can. | | -- | ----- | ---- | ------ | -- | - | ---- | |     " | should | " | " | " | " | could. | | —He | would | give | it | to | you | if | you | asked | him | for | it. | | --- | ----- | ---- | -- | -- | --- | -- | --- | ----- | --- | --- | --- | |     " | " | have given | " | " | " | " | " | had asked | " | " | "\[159\] | |     " | would | give | " | " | " | " | " | should ask | " | " | " | | —I | shall | go | there | if | I | have | time. | | -- | ----- | -- | ----- | -- | - | ---- | ----- | |     " | should | " | " | " | " | had | " | |     " | shall | " | " | " | " | should have | " | |     " | should have | gone | " | " | " | had had | " |