The Elementary Montessori Material - English Restoration ## Chapter 13 - Punctuation ## XIII **PUNCTUATION** The permutations of clauses permitted by our materials give empirical evidence of the pauses and accordingly of the functions of the orthographical signs of suspense in the sentence. These signs are included also in our alphabets. All the exercises hitherto given require more or less spontaneous attention to punctuation. We offer, however, in addition, several series of sentences for analysis in illustration of the principal rules for the use of punctuation points. Almost all of our Italian sentences are taken from Manzoni, a writer especially noteworthy for his care in punctuation. (The majority of the sentences below are taken from the *Book of Knowledge*, by special permission of the publishers.) **Series I** The comma may separate coordinate elements. —The mother took a glowing pride in the beauty of her children's faces, the grace and strength of their bodies, their reckless daring and unflinching courage. —The little star fell plump into the middle of a big puddle, and there it lay sad and shaken and quaking with fright. —It was dumb and half blind, it had a soiled face, and could give no more light. —A mouse was just then peeping from its hole to see whether it was going to rain, and whether it would be safe to cross the fields. —The mouse started running again, and ran until it was tired out and had to sit down. \[161\] —The little star poured a flood of bright light over the poor woman, and made her bright and cheerful and strong again, and then the little girl became very happy. **Series II** A comma isolates vocatives and incidental clauses. —"Cæsar, let your men go forward," said the guide. —Why do you want to find your father, Mora? —"No," said he, "I shall be very well presently." —"Boys," said our host, "I know whose hand it is." —That, excuse me for saying so, is not the way to speak to a friend. —"Come with us, you handsome young huntsman," he cried. **Series III** A comma separates clauses, especially for clearness, when the elements of one clause might seem to apply equally well to another clause, and when one clause is interpolated between the essential elements of another. —Mohammed taught that men should pray at stated times, wherever they are. —George, who was only five years old, could not go with his father to fight. —The tribemen, after quarreling a long time, decided to march away. —He went that evening, as he had planned, to the doctor's house. —The poor Indian had been kept moving, ever since he was born, to regions farther and farther north. —The child crept to the bed, and, taking his little fan, stood over his father all night fanning him. **Series IV** A comma indicates a pause caused by the ellipsis of some word or idea (in such cases longer suspense can be indicated by a colon or a semi-colon). \[162\] —Very well, what of it? —Good-by, all you nice people! —Just what I wanted: a plate of wild strawberries with real cream! —Please, mother, just a little more, a very little more! —Silence, obedience, and everybody at work! —Enough said; I know exactly what the matter is! **Series V** A semi-colon marks a considerable halt between clauses. In some special cases, a colon is used. The dash. Quotations. —The knight mounted a superb steed; the old huntsman did the same. —Some carriages opened at the back, with the driver sitting perched high above the door; others had the driver's seat at the side, and in all sorts of queer positions. —The first trams were drawn, usually, by horses; though many people can remember when London street-cars were drawn by mules—two big ones or three little ones for each car. —The letter began: "I hope you will let me know if this letter does not reach you." —Patrick Henry said: "Give me liberty, or give me death!" —The boy's mind was full of love and romance but not of sadness for—\ Singing he was and fluting all the day:\ He was as fresh as in the month of May. —The king will ask you three questions: "How old are you?" "How long have you been in his service?" "Are you satisfied with your food and lodgings?" —How happy they were: all kinds of toys to play with; all sorts of good things to eat; and a kind old father to satisfy their every want! —Slowly one of the dialects of English—the language of London—came to be regarded as standard English. —Washington is called "the Father of his Country." \[163\] —When he got home, he said to his wife: "See, I have brought you a present." —He shouted gleefully: "I am a lion—a terrible lion." **Series VI\ (Other Punctuation Points)** The period, the question mark, exclamation point and other signs of punctuation: In this series should be given dialogues, interesting stories, passages which express emotional states of mind vividly portrayed. Such selections, as is true also of our shorter passages, ought to be taken from the best writers, distinguished by the naturalness and vivacity of their style and the use of an accurate orthographical technique. At this point we make use of the selections used for our "interpretations," since the question of punctuation coincides with the problems of text interpretation itself. --- \[164\] ## XIV **WORD CLASSIFICATION** ### The Kinds of Words In doing the work outlined thus far, the children have acquired considerable resources in vocabulary. They have seen all the articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, interjections, many of the adverbs; and they know many nouns, adjectives, and verbs, which will be increased in number as their culture is widened. They know something also of the use of the parts of speech and their functions in the expression of thought. This is the natural place for a classification in retrospect of those words which the children have in writing before them on the cards and slips of different colors. Separate tables should be used for these exercises in word grouping. This new step is preparatory to a *theoretical study* of language to be developed in later courses in the second period of their education. **WORDS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORMATION** | Root |   | words | | ---- | - | ----- | | Derived[\[3\]](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/42869/pg42869-images.html#Footnote_3_3) |   | | Compound[\[4\]](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/42869/pg42869-images.html#Footnote_4_4) |   | \[165\] **CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO INFLECTION** There are two kinds of words, thus considered: variable and invariable: | INVARIABLES: |   | preposition<br>conjunction<br>interjection |   | They may be simple or compound, made up, that is, of one word or more. | | ------------ | - | ---------------------------------- | - | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- |   | VARIABLES: |   | in gender and number |   | nouns |   | may be of masculine, feminine, neuter or common gender.<br><br>form their plurals by adding -s or by changing the root vowel (umlaut) | | ---------- | - | -------------------- | - | ----- | - | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | in gender, number person and case |   | pronouns |   | have special words for each form: e.g. he, him, who, whom, I, me, etc. | | in degree |   | adjectives<br>adverbs |   | -er for comparative<br>-est for superlative | | in person, number, tense and mood |   | verbs |   | show third person singular by adding -s, and old second person singular by adding -st<br><br>show moods by adding -ing, -ed or by vowel change for participles: or by special forms (I be, he be, etc.) for subjunctive.<br><br>show tense by suffix -ed, -t: or by vowel change (I go, I went).<br><br>show irregular forms. | | for phonetic reasons |   | definite article<br>indefinite |   | *the* has two pronunciations according to the following word.<br><br>*a* becomes *an* before a vowel. | **CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR USE\ (Parts of Speech)** | Article | Verb | Pronoun | | ------- | ---- | ------- | | Noun | Adverb | Conjunction | | Adjective    | Preposition    | Interjection | Note: In actual usage the parts of speech perform not only their own functions, but also the functions of other\[166\] parts of speech, for instance, the adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, etc., may be used as nouns. The participles, etc., may be used as adjectives, or as clauses, etc. ### THE NOUN | Proper | Common | | ------ | ------ | | Concrete | Abstract | | Collective    | Individual | ### THE ARTICLE Definite—the\ Indefinite—a, an ### THE ADJECTIVE Descriptive: Properties, qualities of things and living beings. | Quantitative: |   | Definite (numeral) |   | *cardinal:* one, two, three, four, etc.<br><br>*ordinal:* first, second, third, fourth, last, etc.<br><br>*multiple:* single, double, triple, quadruple, etc. *fractional:* half, third, etc. | | ------------- | - | ------------------ | - | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Indefinite |   | many, all, some, much, enough, no, more, most, other, little, few, whatever, each, every, certain, several, somewhat, etc. | Demonstrative (position in space): this, that, these, those, such, same. Possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their. Interrogative: what? which? ### VERB The verb indicates: existence: *to be*.\ state or condition: *nominal predicate* (copular): e.g., She *is* beautiful.\ action: *verbal predicate:* e.g., I *run*. | Transitive (action upon an object different from subject) |   | lay, throw, toss, hurl, roll, raise, lower, attach, touch, tie, cover, uncover, undo, invert, rub, spread, collect, scatter, sprinkle, stir, beat, mix, dissolve, flavor, arrange, clean, dust, sweep, button, lace, hook, brush, wash, wipe, embrace, etc., etc. | | --------------------------------------------------------- | - | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Intransitive (action remains in subject) |   | grow, die, smile, laugh, stare, walk, stagger, march, sing, whistle, speak, hum, dance, shout, dine, bark, think, burst, blossom, remain, stand, rise, go, run, breathe, sigh, hesitate, weep, sleep, etc., etc. | \[167\] > Note: Certain verbs may be by nature both transitive and intransitive (incomplete predication). | Impersonals (the subject is *it* without reference to a specific object):  |   | rain, snow, hail, dawn, lighten, thunder, etc. | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ | - | ---------------------------------------------- | ### ADVERBS | of Manner:  |   | slowly, rapidly, silently, noisily, abruptly, loudly, strongly, weakly, moderately, well, ill, better, worse, otherwise, differently, thus, so, lightly, heavily, etc., etc. | | ----------- | - | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | of Place:  |   | here, there, elsewhere, up, down, forward, backward, upstairs, downstairs, etc., etc. | | of Time:  |   | always, ever, never, again, still, yesterday, tomorrow,today, now, occasionally, before, afterwards, soon, etc., etc. | | of Quantity:  |   | much, little, enough, nothing, more, less, least, most, about, only, too, very, etc. | | of Comparison:  |   | more, less, than, etc. | | of Affirmation:  |   | yes, certainly, precisely, indeed, surely, assuredly, truly, even, etc. | | of Negation:  |   | no, never, not, at all, etc. | | of Doubt:  |   | perhaps, perchance, almost, probably, etc. | ### PREPOSITION | Simple:  |   | of, to, by, from, in, with, on, among, above, through, under, around, beside, behind, save, except, near, next, like, during, off, etc. | | -------- | - | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | Compound (preposition phrases): in place of, out of, away from, as to, on board, with regard to, etc. ### PRONOUN | Personal: |   | subject: |   | I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they | | --------- | - | -------- | - | ----------------------------------- | | object: |   | me, thee, him, her, it, us, you, them | | Demonstrative: |   | definite: |   | this, this one, that, that one, these, those | | indefinite: |   | one, ones, some, somebody, everyone, each, each one, no one, nobody, none, nothing, etc.<br><br>\[168\] | | Relative: |   | of person: |   | subject: who, that<br>possessive: whose<br>object: whom, that | | of thing: which, that | | indefinite: whoever, which ever | | compound (antecedent understood): what (that which), whereof, wherewith, etc. | | Interrogative: |   | of person: |   | who<br>whose<br>whom<br>which | | of thing: |   | what<br>which | Possessive: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, ours, yours, theirs. ### CONJUNCTION Disjunctive: or, or else, otherwise, rather.\ \ Copulative: and, also, too, besides, moreover, further, furthermore, nor, etc.\ \ Adversative: but, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet, still, while, however, only, on the contrary, instead, etc.\ \ Declarative: namely, in other words, that is, etc.\ \ Relative: that.\ \ Illative: hence, therefore, wherefore, then, accordingly, so, with the result that, etc.\ \ Temporal: while, when, as soon as, after, before, until, till, hardly, etc.\ \ Concessive: though, although, even if.\ \ Purpose (Final): that, in order that, to the end that, etc.\ \ Conditional: if, unless, provided, provided that, etc.\ \ Causal: as, because, for, since, seeing that, etc.\ \ Result: that, so that, etc.\ \ Locative: where, whence, whither, whereto, wherefrom, etc.\ \ Degree and Comparison: as, than. ### INTERJECTION See list already given on pp. [122](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/42869/pg42869-images.html#Page_122)-[123](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/42869/pg42869-images.html#Page_123). --- ### FOOTNOTES: [\[3\]](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/42869/pg42869-images.html#FNanchor_3_3) Under this heading we include all derivations by suffix: some suffixes change one part of speech into another: *love* (verb), *lovable* (adj.), etc.; others, such as *diminutives*, *peggioratives*, *augmentatives*, etc., change the quality of a word's meaning. In adjectives we have suffixes of degree (comparison: *-er*, *-est*). [\[4\]](https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/42869/pg42869-images.html#FNanchor_4_4) Under this heading we include all words formed by the union of two words or by prefixes.