The Montessori Method, 2nd Edition - Restoration # Chapter 5 - Discipline ## [5.1 Discipline through liberty](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+05+-+Discipline#5.1-discipline-through-liberty (Link to Montessori.Zone's Translation Base Text "The Montessori Method")) The pedagogical method of ***observation*** has its base on the ***liberty*** of the child, and ***liberty is activity**.* Discipline must come through liberty. Here is a great principle that is difficult for the followers of common-school methods to understand. How shall one obtain ***discipline*** in a class of free children? Certainly in our system, we have a concept of discipline very different from that commonly accepted. If discipline is founded upon liberty, the discipline itself must necessarily be ***active**.* We do not consider an individual disciplined only when he has been rendered as artificially silent as a mute and as immovable as a paralytic. He is an individual ***annihilated***, not ***disciplined**.* We call an individual disciplined when he is master of himself, and can, therefore, regulate his own conduct when it shall be necessary to follow some rule of life. Such a concept of ***active discipline*** is not easy to comprehend or apply. But certainly, it contains a great ***educational*** principle, very different from the old-time absolute and undiscussed coercion to immobility. A special technique is necessary for the teacher who is to lead the child along such a path of discipline if she is to make it possible for him to continue in this way all his life, advancing indefinitely toward perfect self-mastery. Since the child now learns to ***move*** rather than to ***sit still***, he prepares himself not for school, but life; for he becomes able, through habit and through practice, to perform easily and correctly the simple acts of social or community life. The discipline to which the child habituates himself here is, in its character, not limited to the school environment but extends to society. The liberty of the child should have as its l***imit*** the collective interest; as its ***form***, what we universally consider good breeding. We must, therefore, check in the child on whatever offends or annoys others, or whatever tends toward rough or ill-bred acts. But all the rest, every manifestation having a useful scope, whatever it be, and under whatever form it expresses itself, must not only be permitted but must be ***observed*** by the teacher. Here lies the essential point; from her scientific preparation, the teacher must bring not only the capacity but the desire, to observe natural phenomena. In our system, she must become a passive, much more than an active, influence, and her passivity shall be composed of anxious scientific curiosity, and of absolute ***respect*** for the phenomenon which she wishes to observe. The teacher must understand and ***feel*** her position of ***observer**:* the ***activity*** must lie in the ***phenomenon**.* Such principles assuredly have a place in schools for little children who are exhibiting the first psychic manifestations of their lives. We cannot know the consequences of suffocating a ***spontaneous action*** at the time when the child is just beginning to be active: perhaps we suffocate ***life itself**.* Humanity shows itself in all its intellectual splendor during this tender age as the sun shows itself at the dawn, and the flower in the first unfolding of the petals; and we must ***respect*** religiously, reverently, these first indications of individuality. If any educational act is to be efficacious, it will be only that which tends to ***help*** toward the complete unfolding of this life. To be thus helpful it is necessary rigorously to avoid the ***arrest of spontaneous movements and the imposition of arbitrary tasks**.* It is of course understood, that here we do not speak of useless or dangerous acts, for these must be ***suppressed, destroyed**.* Actual training and practice are necessary to fit for this method teachers who have not been prepared for scientific observation, and such training is especially necessary for those who have been accustomed to the old domineering methods of the common school. My experiences in training teachers for the work in my schools did much to convince me of the great distance between these methods and those. Even an intelligent teacher, who understands the principle, finds much difficulty in putting it into practice. She can not understand that her new task is apparently ***passive***, like that of the astronomer who sits immovable before the telescope while the worlds whirl through space. This idea, that ***life** acts of **itself***, and that in order to study it, to divine its secrets, or to direct its activity, it is necessary to observe it and to understand it without intervening this idea, I say, is very difficult for anyone to ***assimilate*** and to ***put into practice**.* The teacher has too thoroughly learned to be the one free activity of the school; it has for too long been virtually her duty to suffocate the activity of her pupils. When in the first days in one of the "Children's Houses" she does not obtain order and silence, she looks about her embarrassed as if asking the public to excuse her, and calling upon those present to testify her innocence. In vain do we repeat to her that the disorder of the first moment is necessary? And finally, when we oblige her to do nothing but ***watch***, she asks if she had not better resign since she is no longer a teacher. But when she begins to find it her duty to discern which are the acts to hinder and which are those to observe, the teacher of the old school feels a great void within herself and begins to ask if she will not be inferior to her new task. In fact, she who is not prepared finds herself for a long time abashed and impotent; whereas the broader the teacher's scientific culture and practice in experimental psychology, the sooner will come for her the marvel of unfolding life, and her interest in it. Notari, in his novel, "My Millionaire Uncle," which is a criticism of modern customs, gives with that quality of vividness that is peculiar to him, a most eloquent example of the old-time methods of discipline. The "uncle" when a child was guilty of such a number of disorderly acts that he practically upset the whole town, and in desperation, he was confined to a school. Here "Fufu," as he was called, experiences his first wish to be kind, and feels the first moving of his soul when he is near to the pretty little Fufetta, and learns that she is hungry and has no luncheon. > "He glanced around, looked at Fufetta, rose, took his little lunch basket, and without saying a word placed it in her lap. > > "Then he ran away from her, and, without knowing why he did so, hung his head and burst into tears. > > "My uncle did not know how to explain to himself the reason for this sudden outburst. > > "He had seen for the first time two kind eyes full of sad tears, and he had felt moved within himself, and at the same time a great shame had rushed over him; the shame of eating near to one who had nothing to eat. > > "Not knowing how to express the impulse of his heart, nor what to say in asking her to accept the offer of his little basket, nor how to invent an excuse to justify his offering it to her, he remained the victim of this first deep movement of his little soul. > > "Fufetta, all confused, ran to him quickly. With great gentleness, she drew away the arm in which he had hidden his face. > > "'Do not cry, Fufu,' she said to him softly, almost as if pleading with him. She might have been speaking to her beloved rag doll, so motherly and the intent was her little face, and so full of gentle authority, her manner. > > "Then the little girl kissed him, and my uncle yielding to the influence which had filled his heart, put his arms around her neck, and, still silent and sobbing, kissed her in return. At last, sighing deeply, he wiped from his face and eyes the damp traces of his emotion and smiled again. > > "A strident voice called out from the other end of the courtyard: > > "'Here, here, you two down there be quick with you; inside, both of you!' > > "It was the teacher, the guardian. She crushed that first gentle stirring in the soul of a rebel with the same blind brutality that she would have used toward two children engaged in a fight. > > "It was the time for all to go back into the school and everybody had to obey the rule." Thus I saw my teachers act in the first days of my practice school in the "Children's Houses." They almost involuntarily recalled the children to immobility without ***observing*** and ***distinguishing*** the nature of the movements they repressed. There was, for example, a little girl who gathered her companions about her and then, in the midst of them, began to talk and gesticulate. The teacher at once ran to her, took hold of her arms, and told her to be still; but I, observing the child, saw that she was playing at being teacher or mother to the others, and teaching them the morning prayer, the invocation to the saints, and the sign of the cross: she already showed herself as a ***director**.* Another child, who continually made disorganized and misdirected movements, and who was considered abnormal, one day, with an expression of intense attention, set about moving the tables. Instantly they were upon him to make him stand still because he made too much noise. Yet this was one of the ***first manifestations***, in this child, of movements that were ***coordinated*** **and *directed toward a useful end***, and it was, therefore, an action that should have been respected. In fact, after this, the child began to be quiet and happy like the others whenever he had any small objects to move about and to arrange upon his desk. It often happened that while the directress replaced in the boxes various materials that had been used, a child would draw near, picking up the objects, with the evident desire of imitating the teacher. The first impulse was to send the child back to her place with the remark, "Let it alone; go to your seat." Yet the child expressed by this act a desire to be useful; the time, with her, was ripe for a lesson in order. One day, the children had gathered themselves, laughing and talking, into a circle about a basin of water containing some floating toys. We had in the school a little boy barely two and a half years old. He had been left outside the circle, alone, and it was easy to see that he was filled with intense curiosity. I watched him from a distance with great interest; he first drew near to the other children and tried to force his way among them, but he was not strong enough to do this, and he then stood looking about him. The expression of thought on his little face was intensely interesting. I wish that I had had a camera so that I might have photographed him. His eye lighted upon a little chair, and evidently, he made up his mind to place it behind the group of children and then to climb up on it. He began to move toward the chair, his face illuminated with hope, but at that moment the teacher seized him brutally (or, perhaps, she would have said, gently) in her arms, and lifted him up above the heads of the other children showed him the basin of water, saying, "Come, poor little one, you shall see too!" Undoubtedly the child, seeing the floating toys, did not experience the joy that he was about to feel through conquering the obstacle with his own force. The sight of those objects could be of no advantage to him, while his intelligent efforts would have developed his inner powers. The teacher ***hindered*** the child, in this case, from educating himself, without giving him any compensating good in return. The little fellow had been about to feel himself a conqueror, and he found himself held within two imprisoning arms, impotent. The expression of joy, anxiety, and hope, which had interested me so much faded from his face and left on it the stupid expression of the child who knows that others will act for him. When the teachers were weary of my observations, they began to allow the children to do whatever they pleased. I saw children with their feet on the tables, or with their fingers in their noses, and no intervention was made to correct them. I saw others push their companions, and I saw dawn in the faces of these an expression of violence; and not the slightest attention on the part of the teacher. Then I had to intervene to show with what absolute rigor it is necessary to hinder, and little by little suppress, all those things which we must not do, so that the child may come to discern clearly between good and evil. If discipline is to be lasting, its foundations must be laid in this way and these first days are the most difficult for the directress. The first idea that the child must acquire, in order to be actively disciplined, is that of the difference between ***good*** and ***evil**;* and the task of the educator lies in seeing that the child does not confound ***good*** with ***immobility*** and ***evil*** with ***activity***, as often happens in the case of the old-time discipline. And all this because our aim is to discipline ***for activity, for work, for good**;* not for ***immobility***, not for ***passivity***, not for ***obedience**.* A room in which all the children move about usefully, intelligently, and voluntarily, without committing any rough or rude act, would seem to me a classroom very well disciplined indeed. To seat the children in rows, as in the common schools, to assign to each little one a place, and to propose that they shall sit thus quietly observant of the order of the whole class as an assemblage this can be attained later, as ***the starting place of collective education**.* Also, in life, it sometimes happens that we must all remain seated and quiet; when, for example, we attend a concert or a lecture. And we know that even to us, as grown people, this costs no little sacrifice. If we can, when we have established individual discipline, arrange the children, sending each one to ***his own place, in order***, trying to make them understand the idea that thus placed they look well, and that it is a ***good thing*** to be thus placed in order, that it is a ***good and pleasing arrangement in the room***, this ordered and tranquil adjustment of theirs then they're remaining in their places, ***quiet*** and ***silent***, is the result of a species of *the lesson*, not an ***imposition**.* To make them understand the idea, without calling their attention too forcibly to the practice, to have them ***assimilate a principle of collective order*** that is the important thing. If, after they have understood this idea, they rise, speak, and change to another place, they no longer do this without knowing and without thinking, but they do it because they ***wish*** to rise, to speak, etc.; that is, from that ***state of repose and order***, well understood, they depart in order to undertake ***some voluntary action**;* and knowing that there are actions which are prohibited, this will give them a new impulse to remember to discriminate between good and evil. The movements of the children from the state of order become always more coordinated and perfect with the passing of the days; in fact, they learn to reflect upon their own acts. Now (with the idea of order understood by the children) the observation of how the children pass from the first disordered movements to those which are spontaneous and ordered this is the book of the teacher; this is the book that must inspire her actions; it is the only one in which she must read and study if she is to become a real educator. For the child with such exercises makes, to a certain extent, a selection of his own ***tendencies***, which were at first confused in the unconscious disorder of his movements. It is remarkable how clearly ***individual differences*** show themselves if we proceed in this way; the child, conscious and free, ***reveals himself**.* There are those who remain quietly in their seats, apathetic, or drowsy; others who leave their places to quarrel, fight, or overturn the various blocks and toys, and then there are those others who set out to fulfill a definite and determined act moving a chair to some particular spot and sitting down in it, moving one of the unused tables and arranging upon it the game they wish to play. Our idea of liberty for the child cannot be the simple concept of liberty we use in the observation of plants, insects, etc. The child, because of the peculiar characteristics of helplessness with which he is born, and because of his qualities as a social individual is circumscribed by ***bonds*** that ***limit*** his activity. An educational method that shall have ***liberty*** as its basis must intervene to help the child to a conquest of these various obstacles. In other words, his training must be such as shall help him to diminish, in a rational manner, the ***social bonds***, which limit his activity. Little by little, as the child grows in such an atmosphere, his spontaneous manifestations will become more ***clear, with the clearness of truth***, revealing his nature. For all these reasons, the first form of educational intervention must tend to lead the child toward independence. ## [5.2 Independence](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+05+-+Discipline#5.2-independence (Link to Montessori.Zone's Translation Base Text "The Montessori Method")) No one can be free unless he is independent: therefore, the first, active manifestations of the child's individual liberty must be so guided that through this activity he may arrive at independence. Little children, from the moment they are weaned, are making their way toward independence. What is a weaned child? In reality, it is a child that has become independent of the mother's breast. Instead of this one source of nourishment, he will find various kinds of food; for him, the means of existence are multiplied, and he can to some extent make a selection of his food, whereas he was at first limited absolutely to one form of nourishment. Nevertheless, he is still dependent, since he is not yet able to walk and cannot wash and dress himself, and since he is not yet able to *ask* for things in a language that is clear and easily understood. He is still in this period to a great extent the *slave* of everyone. By the age of three, however, the child should have been able to render himself to a great extent ***independent*** and free. That we have not yet thoroughly assimilated the highest concept of the term ***independence***, is because the social form in which we live is still ***servile**.* In an age of civilization where servants exist, the concept of that ***form of life*** which is ***independence*** cannot take root or develop freely. Even so in the time of slavery, the concept of liberty was distorted and darkened. Our servants are not our dependents, rather it is we who are dependent upon them. It is not possible to accept universally as a part of our social structure such a deep human error without feeling the general effects of it in the form of moral inferiority. We often believe ourselves to be independent simply because no one commands us, and because we command others, but the nobleman who needs to call a servant to his aid is really dependent on his own inferiority. The paralytic who cannot take off his boots because of a pathological fact, and the prince who dares not take them off because of a social fact, are in reality reduced to the same condition. Any nation that accepts the idea of servitude and believes that it is an advantage for a man to be served by man, admits servility as an instinct, and indeed we all too easily lend ourselves to ***obsequious service***, giving to it such complimentary names as ***courtesy, politeness, charity**.* In reality, ***he who is served is limited*** in his independence. This concept will be the foundation of the dignity of the man of the future; "I do not wish to be served, ***because*** I am not impotent." And this idea must be gained before men can feel themselves to be really free. Any pedagogical action, if it is to be efficacious in the training of little children, must tend to *help* the children to advance upon this road of independence. We must help them to learn to walk without assistance, run, go up and down stairs, lift up fallen objects, dress and undress themselves, bathe themselves, speak distinctly, and express their own needs clearly. We must give such help as shall make it possible for children to achieve the satisfaction of their own individual aims and desires. All this is a part of education for independence. We habitually ***serve*** children; and this is not only an act of servility toward them, but it is dangerous since it tends to suffocate their useful, spontaneous activity. We are inclined to believe that children are like puppets, and we wash them and feed them as if they were dolls. We do not stop to think that the child ***who does not do, does not know how to do it**.* He must, nevertheless, do these things, and nature has furnished him with the physical means for carrying on these various activities, and with the intellectual means for learning how to do them. And our duty toward him is, in every case, that of ***helping him*** to make a conquest of such useful acts as nature intended he should perform for himself. The mother who feeds her child without making the least effort to teach him to hold the spoon for himself and to try to find his mouth with it, and who does not at least eat herself, inviting the child to look and see how she does it, is not a good mother. She offends the fundamental human dignity of her son, she treats him as if he were a doll, when he is, instead, a man confided by nature to her care. Who does not know that to ***teach*** a child to feed himself, to wash and dress himself, is much more tedious and difficult work, calling for infinitely greater patience, than feeding, washing, and dressing the child one's self? But the former is the work of an educator, the latter is the easy and inferior work of a servant. Not only is it easier for the mother, but it is very dangerous for the child since it closes the way and puts obstacles in the path of the life which is developing The ultimate consequences of such an attitude on the part of the parent may be very serious indeed. The grand gentleman who has too many servants not only grows constantly more and more dependent upon them, until he is, finally, actually their slave, but his muscles grow weak through inactivity and finally lose their natural capacity for action. The mind of one who does not work for that which he needs, but commands it from others, grows heavy and sluggish. If such a man should someday awaken to the fact of his inferior position and should wish to regain once more his own independence, he would find that he had no longer the force to do so. These dangers should be presented to the parents of the privileged social classes if their children are to use independently and for right the special power which is theirs. Needless help is an actual hindrance to the development of natural forces. Oriental women wear trousers, it is true, and European women, petticoats; but the former, even more than the latter, are taught as a part of their education the art of ***not moving**.* Such an attitude toward women leads to the fact that man works not only for themselves but for a woman. And the woman wastes her natural strength and activity and languishes in slavery. She is not only maintained and served, but she is also, besides, diminished, belittled, in that individuality which is hers by right of her existence as a human being. As an individual member of society, she is a cipher. She is rendered deficient in all those powers and resources which tend to the preservation of life. Let me illustrate this: A carriage containing a father, mother, and child, is going along a country road. An armed brigand stops the carriage with the well-known phrase, "Your money or your life." Placed in this situation, the three persons in the carriage act in very different ways. The man, who is a trained marksman, and who is armed with a revolver, promptly draws and confronts the assassin. The boy, armed only with the freedom and lightness of his own legs, cries out and betakes himself to flight. The woman, who is not armed in any way whatever, neither artificially nor naturally (since her limbs, not trained for activity, are hampered by her skirts), gives a frightened gasp, and sinks down unconscious. These three diverse reactions are in close relation to the state of liberty and independence of each of the three individuals. The swooning woman is she whose cloak is carried for her by attentive cavaliers, who are quick to pick up any fallen object so that she may be spared all exertion. The peril of servilism and dependence lies not only in that "useless consuming of life," which leads to helplessness but in the development of individual traits which indicate all too plainly a regrettable perversion and degeneration of the normal man. I refer to the domineering and tyrannical behavior with examples with which we are all only too familiar. The domineering habit develops side by side with helplessness. It is the outward sign of the state of feeling of him who conquers through the work of others. Thus it often happens that the master is a tyrant toward his servant. It is the spirit of the task-master toward the slave. Let us picture ourselves as a clever and proficient workman, capable, not only of producing much and perfect work but of advising his workshop, because of his ability to control and direct the general activity of the environment in which he works. The man who is thus master of his environment will be able to smile before the anger of others, showing that great mastery of himself which comes from consciousness of his ability to do things. We should not, however, be in the least surprised to know that in his home this capable workman scolded his wife if the soup was not to his taste, or not ready at the appointed time. In his home, he is no longer the capable workman; the skilled workman here is the wife, who serves him and prepares his food for him. He is a serene and pleasant man who is powerful through being efficient but is domineering where he is served. Perhaps if he should learn how to prepare his soup he might become a perfect man! The man who, through his own efforts, is able to perform all the actions necessary for his comfort and development in life, conquers himself, and in doing so multiplies his abilities and perfects himself as an individual. We must make of the future generation, ***powerful men***, and by that, we mean men who are independent and free. ## [5.3 Abolition of prizes and external forms of punishment](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+05+-+Discipline#5.3-abolition-of-prizes-and-external-forms-of-punishment (Link to Montessori.Zone's Translation Base Text "The Montessori Method")) Once we have accepted and established such principles, the abolition of prizes and external forms of punishment will follow naturally. Man, disciplined through liberty, begins to desire the true and only prize which will never belittle or disappoint him, the birth of human power and liberty within that inner life of his from which his activities must spring. In my own experience, I have often marveled to see how true this is. During our first months in the "Children's Houses," the teachers had not yet learned to put into practice the pedagogical principles of liberty and discipline. One of them, especially, busied herself, when I was absent, in ***remedying*** my ideas by introducing a few of those methods to which she had been accustomed. So, one day when I came in unexpectedly, I found one of the most intelligent of the children wearing a large Greek cross of silver, hung from his neck by a fine piece of white ribbon, while another child was seated in an armchair which had been conspicuously placed in the middle of the room. The first child had been rewarded, the second was being punished. The teacher, at least while I was present, did not interfere in any way, and the situation remained as I had found it. I held my peace and placed myself where I might observe quietly. The child with the cross was moving back and forth, carrying the objects with which he had been working, from his table to that of the teacher, and bringing others in their place. He was busy and happy. As he went back and forth he passed by the armchair of the child who was being punished. The silver cross slipped from his neck and fell to the floor, and the child in the armchair picked it up, dangled it on its white ribbon, looking at it from all sides, and then said to his companion: "Do you see what you have dropped?" The child turned and looked at the trinket with an air of indifference; his expression seemed to say; "Don't interrupt me," his voice replied, "I don't care." "Don't you care, really?" said the punished one calmly. "Then I will put it on myself." And the other replied, "Oh, yes, put it on," in a tone that seemed to add, "and leave me in peace!" The boy in the armchair carefully arranged the ribbon so that the cross lay upon the front of his pink apron where he could admire its brightness and its pretty form, then he settled himself more comfortably in his little chair and rested his arms with evident pleasure upon the arms of the chair. The affair remained thus and was quite just. The dangling cross could satisfy the child who was being punished, but not the active child, content and happy with his work. One day I took with me on a visit to another of the "Children's Houses" a lady who praised the children highly and who, opening a box she had brought, showed them some shining medals, each tied with a bright red ribbon. "The mistress," she said "will put these on the breasts of those children who are the cleverest and the best." As I was under no obligation to instruct this visitor in my methods, I kept silent, and the teacher took the box. At that moment, a most intelligent little boy of four, who was seated quietly at one of the little tables, wrinkled his forehead in an act of protest and cried out over and over again; "Not to the boys, though, not to the boys!" What a revelation! This little fellow already knew that he stood among the best and strongest of his class, although no one had ever revealed this fact to him, and he did not wish to be offended by this prize. Not knowing how to defend his dignity, he invoked the superior quality of his masculinity! As to punishments, we have many times come in contact with children who disturbed others without paying any attention to our corrections. Such children were at once examined by the physician. When the case proved to be that of a normal child, we placed one of the little tables in a corner of the room, and in this way isolated the child; having him sit in a comfortable little armchair, so placed that he might see his companions at work, and giving him those games and toys to which he was most attracted. This isolation almost always succeeded in calming the child; from his position, he could see the entire assembly of his companions, and how they carried on their work was an ***object lesson*** much more efficacious than any words of the teacher could possibly have been. Little by little, he would come to see the advantages of being one of the companies working so busily before his eyes, and he would really wish to go back and do as the others did. We have in this way led back again to discipline all the children who at first seemed to rebel against it. The isolated child was always made the object of special care, almost as if he were ill. I myself, when I entered the room, went first of all directly to him, caressing him, as if he were a very little child. Then I turned my attention to the others, interesting myself in their work, asking questions about it as if they had been little men. I do not know what happened in the soul of these children whom we found it necessary to discipline, but certainly, the conversion was always very complete and lasting. They showed great pride in learning how to work and how to conduct themselves, and always showed a very tender affection for the teacher and me. ## [5.4 The biological concept of liberty in pedagogy](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+05+-+Discipline#5.4-the-biological-concept-of-liberty-in-pedagogy (Link to Montessori.Zone's Translation Base Text "The Montessori Method")) From a biological point of view, the concept of ***liberty*** in the education of the child in his earliest years must be understood as demanding those conditions adapted to the most favorable ***development*** of his entire individuality. So, from the physiological side as well as from the mental side, this includes the free development of the brain. The educator must be one inspired by deep ***worship of life***, and must, through this reverence, *respect*, while he observes with human interest, the ***development*** of the child's life. Now, child life is not an abstraction; ***it is the life of individual children**.* There exists only one real biological manifestation: the ***living individual**;* and toward single individuals, one by one observed, education must direct itself. Education must be understood as the active ***help*** given to the normal expansion of the life of the child. The child is a body that grows, and a soul which develops, these two forms, physiological and psychic, have one eternal font, life itself. We must neither mar nor stifle the mysterious powers which lie within these two forms of growth, but we must ***await from them*** the manifestations which we know will succeed one another. The ***environment*** is undoubtedly a ***secondary*** factor in the phenomena of life; it can modify in that it can help or hinder, but it can never ***create**.* The modern theories of evolution, from Naegeli to De Vries, consider throughout the development of the two biological branches, animal and vegetable, this interior factor as the essential force in the transformation of the species and the transformation of the individual. The origins of the ***development**,* both in the species and in the individual, ***lie within**.* The child does not grow ***because*** he is nourished, ***because*** he breathes, ***because*** he is placed in conditions of temperature to which he is adapted; he grows because the potential life within him develops, making itself visible; because the fruitful germ from which his life has come develops itself according to the biological destiny which was fixed for it by heredity. Adolescence does not come ***because*** the child laughs, dances, does gymnastic exercises, or is well nourished; but because he has arrived at that particular physiological state. Life makes itself manifest, life creates, life gives: and is in its turn held within certain limits and bound by certain laws which are insuperable. The ***fixed*** characteristics of the species do not change, they can only vary. This concept, so brilliantly set forth by De Vries in his Mutation Theory, illustrates also the limits of education. We can act on the ***variations*** which are in relation to the environment, and whose limits vary slightly in the species and the individual, but we cannot act upon the ***mutations**.* The mutations are bound by some mysterious tie to the very font of life itself, and their power rises superior to the modifying elements of the environment. A species, for example, cannot ***mutate*** or change into another species through any phenomenon of ***adaptation**,* as, on the other hand, a great human genius cannot be suffocated by any limitation, nor by any false form of education. The ***environment*** acts more strongly upon the individual life the less fixed and strong this individual life may be. But the environment can act in two opposite senses, favoring life, and stifling it. Many species of palm, for example, are splendid in the tropical regions, because the climatic conditions are favorable to their development, but many species of both animals and plants have become extinct in regions to which they were not able to adapt themselves. Life is a superb goddess, always advancing, overthrowing the obstacles that which environment places in the way of her triumph. This is the basic or fundamental truth, whether it be a question of species or individuals, there persists always the forward march of those victorious ones in whom this mysterious life force is strong and vital. It is evident that in the case of humanity, and especially in the case of our civil humanity, which we call society, the important and imperative question is that of the ***care**,* or perhaps we might say, the ***culture*** of human life. > ##### **The License of this page:** > > This page is part of the “**Montessori Restoration and Translation Project**”.\ > Please [support](https://ko-fi.com/montessori) our “**All-Inclusive Montessori Education for All 0-100+ Worldwide**” initiative. We create open, free, and affordable resources available for everybody interested in Montessori Education. We transform people and environments to be authentic Montessori worldwide. Thank You! > > [](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/) > > **License:** This work with all its restoration edits and translations is licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/). > > Check out the **Page History** of each wiki page in the right column to learn more about all contributors and edits, restorations, and translations done on this page. > > [Contributions](https://ko-fi.com/montessori) and [Sponsors](https://ko-fi.com/montessori) are welcome and very appreciated! * [The Montessori Method, 2nd Edition](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/+Chapter+Index+-+The+Montessori+Method%2C+2nd+Edition+-+Restoration+-+Open+Library#the-montessori-method%2C-2nd-edition---restoration---open-library "The Montessori Method on Montessori Zone - English Language") - English Restoration - [Archive.Org](https://archive.org/details/montessorimethod00montuoft/ "The Montessori Method on Aechive.Org") - [Open Library](https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7089223M/The_Montessori_method "The Montessori Method on Open Library") * [Chapter Index](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/+Chapter+Index+-+The+Montessori+Method%2C+2nd+Edition+-+Restoration+-+Open+Library) * [Chapter 00 - Dedication, Acknowledgements, Preface to the American Edition, Introduction](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+00+-+Dedication%2C+Acknowledgements%2C+Preface+to+the+American+Edition%2C+Introduction) * [Chapter 01 - A critical consideration of the new pedagogy in its relation to modern science](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+01+-+A+critical+consideration+of+the+new+pedagogy+in+its+relation+to+modern+science) * [Chapter 02 - History of Methods](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+02+-+History+of+Methods) * [Chapter 03 - Inaugural address delivered on the occasion of the opening of one of the “Children’s Houses”](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+03+-+Inaugural+address+delivered+on+the+occasion+of+the+opening+of+one+of+the+%E2%80%9CChildren%E2%80%99s+Houses%E2%80%9D) * [Chapter 04 - Pedagogical Methods used in the “Children’s Houses”](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+04+-+Pedagogical+Methods+used+in+the+%E2%80%9CChildren%E2%80%99s+Houses%E2%80%9D) * [Chapter 05 - Discipline](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+05+-+Discipline) * [Chapter 06 - How the lesson should be given](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+06+-+How+the+lesson+should+be+given) * [Chapter 07 - Exercises for Practical Life](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+07+-+Exercises+for+Practical+Life) * [Chapter 08 - Reflection the Child’s diet](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+08+-+Reflection+the+Child%E2%80%99s+diet) * [Chapter 09 - Muscular education gymnastics](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+09+-+Muscular+education+gymnastics) * [Chapter 10 - Nature in education agricultural labor: Culture of plants and animals](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+10+-+Nature+in+education+agricultural+labor%3A+Culture+of+plants+and+animals) * [Chapter 11 - Manual labor the potter’s art, and building](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+11+-+Manual+labor+the+potter%E2%80%99s+art%2C+and+building) * [Chapter 12 - Education of the senses](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+12+-+Education+of+the+senses) * [Chapter 13 - Education of the senses and illustrations of the didactic material: General sensibility: The tactile, thermic, basic, and stereo gnostic senses](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+13+-+Education+of+the+senses+and+illustrations+of+the+didactic+material%3A+General+sensibility%3A+The+tactile%2C+thermic%2C+basic%2C+and+stereo+gnostic+senses) * [Chapter 14 - General notes on the education of the senses](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+14+-+General+notes+on+the+education+of+the+senses) * [Chapter 15 - Intellectual education](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+15+-+Intellectual+education) * [Chapter 16 - Method for the teaching of reading and writing](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+16+-+Method+for+the+teaching+of+reading+and+writing) * [Chapter 17 - Description of the method and didactic material used](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+17+-+Description+of+the+method+and+didactic+material+used) * [Chapter 18 - Language in childhood](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+18+-+Language+in+childhood) * [Chapter 19 - Teaching of numeration: Introduction to arithmetic](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+19+-+Teaching+of+numeration%3A+Introduction+to+arithmetic) * [Chapter 20 - Sequence of exercise](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+20+-+Sequence+of+exercise) * [Chapter 21 - General review of discipline](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+21+-+General+review+of+discipline) * [Chapter 22 - Conclusions and impressions](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+22+-+Conclusions+and+impressions) * [Chapter 23 - Illustrations](https://montessori-international.com/s/the-montessori-method/wiki/Chapter+23+-+Illustrations)